APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 


OTHER  WORKS  BY  THE  SAME  AUTHORS 

FIELD  SYSTEM 
CONCRETE  SYSTEM 
BRICKLAYING  SYSTEM 

MOTION  STUDY: 

A  Method  of  Increasing  the  Efficiency  of  the 
Workman. 

PRIMER  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT 

THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT: 
The  Function  of  the  Mind  in  Determining, 
Teaching  and  Installing  Methods  of  Least 
Waste. 

FATIGUE  STUDY: 

The  Elimination  of  Humanity's  Greatest  Un- 
necessary Waste.  A  First  Step  in  Motion 
Study. 


APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

A  COLLECTION  OF  PAPERS 

ON 

THE  EFFICIENT  METHOD  TO 
INDUSTRIAL    PREPAREDNESS 


BY 

FRANK  B.  GILBRETH 

Consulting  Management  Engineer 

Member  Franklin  Institute;  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers;  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education 

AND 

L.  M.  GILBRETH,  PH.D. 


View  Korfc 

STURGIS  &  WALTON 
COMPANY 

1917 


COPYRIGHT,  1917, 
BY  STUBGIS  &  WALTON  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published,  September,  1917. 


PREFACE 

This  book  aims  — 

1.  To  describe  Motion  Study  as  applied  to 
various  fields  of  activity. 

2.  To  outline  the  principles  and  practice  of 
Motion  Study  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
possible  its  application  in  any  and  all 
kinds  of  work. 

Motion  Study  is  a  means  to  permanent  and 
practical  waste  elimination, —  hence  a  prereq- 
uisite to  efficient  preparedness  that  shall  be  ade- 
quate, constructive  and  cumulative. 


vii 


IJ77390 


FOEEWOED 

This  book  aims  to  present  in  outline 

1.  The  field  where  motion  study  has  been 

and  can  be  applied. 

2.  The  methods  by  which  it  is  applied. 

3.  The  effects  of  the  application. 

It  shows  the  results  of  actual  practice  in  waste 
elimination.  It  enumerates  past  savings,  and 
points  out  present  and  future  possible  savings. 

It  is  offered  as  a  contribution  to  the  solution 
of  the  great  national  problem  of  "  Preparedness." 


INTRODUCTION 

Blessed  is  the  man  who  makes  two  blades  of 
grass  grow  where  only  one  grew  before.  More 
blessed  is  he  who  multiplies  the  harvests  of  toil 
not  merely  two-fold,  but  three-fold  or  more-fold, 
for  he  virtually  lengthens  life  when  he  adds  to 
its  fruitage.  Such  a  man  is  Frank  B.  Gilbreth 
who  tells  in  this  book  just  how  he  wrought  this 
wonder.  For  years  he  has  closely  watched  work- 
ers at  tasks  of  all  kinds;  he  has  discovered  how 
much  they  lose  by  moving  unprofitably  hither 
and  thither,  by  neglecting  to  take  the  shortest 
and  easiest  paths.  In  the  ancient  trade  of 
bricklaying  he  has  increased  the  output  almost 
four-fold  by  doing  only  what  must  be  done,  and 
using  a  few  simple  devices  of  his  own  invention. 
In  this  volume  Mr.  Gilbreth  describes  and  pic- 
tures the  simple  photographic  process  which  en- 
ables one  to  record  in  detail  the  motions  of  a 
handicraft,  or  a  manufacture,  so  as  to  bring  them 
by  criticism  and  experiment  to  their  utmost 
economy  of  energy  and  time.  When  once  the  best 
practice  is  reached  in  any  particular  field  of  work 

ix 


E 
.« 


x  INTRODUCTION 

Gilbreth  motion-pictures  make  it  easy  to  repeat 
that  practice  anywhere  and  at  any  time. 

This  most  fertile  means  of  record  and  of  teach- 
ing enters  the  world  of  industry  at  an  opportune 
moment.  War  to-day  is  destroying  wealth  at  a 
rate  beyond  computation.  National  debts  are 
mounting  billion  upon  billion,  entailing  burdens 
of  taxation  such  as  mankind  never  faced  before. 
Mr.  Gilbreth  meets  this  dire  emergency  with  a 
readily  applied  method  of  increasing  the  results 
of  toil,  of  reducing  all  waste  of  human  exertion 
to  its  minimum.  Not  the  least  telling  branch  of 
his  activity  is  in  extending  aid  and  comfort  to 
maimed  soldiers.  He  opens  a  door  of  hope,  be- 
cause a  door  of  usefulness,  to  the  thousands  of 
brave  men  who  have  lost  their  limbs,  their  sight, 
or  their  hearing,  on  fields  of  battle. 

His  pages  teem  with  suggestive  facts:  take, 
for  example,  his  discovery  that  the  best  way  to 
perform  a  task  unites  the  methods  of  several  dex- 
terous and  original  operators.  Again  we  are 
shown  that  wisdom  rests  not  even  with  the  most 
gifted  man,  but  appears  only  when  men  of  the 
rarest  ability  join  hands.  Another  point:  our 
author  has  found  that  learners  should  strive  first 
for  Quickness;  when  speed  is  acquired  they  can 
best  pass  to  good  quality  in  their  work.  The 
levy  paid  for  Dawdling  is  plainly  beyond  all  esti- 
mate. A  third  point:  Mr.  Gilbreth  argues  that 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

to  repeat  a  task  should  not  mean  monotony.  Let 
a  task  be  fully  studied,  let  all  its  possibilities  be 
brought  into  view,  and  the  operator  will  be  too 
keenly  interested  to  complain  of  "  monotony." 

This  is  a  book  written  from  the  heart  as  well 
as  from  the  brain.  Its  good  will  is  as  evident 
as  its  good  sense.  Frank  B.  Gilbreth  is  a  versa- 
tile Engineer,  an  untiring  observer,  an  ingenious 
inventor,  an  economist  to  the  tips  of  his  fingers : 
first  and  chiefly  he  is  a  man.  To  his  wife,  co-au- 
thor with  him,  this  book  owes  much.  Every  page 
has  taken  form  with  the  aid  and  counsel  of  Mrs. 
Gilbreth,  whose  "  Psychology  of  Management " 
is  a  golden  gift  to  industrial  philosophy.  And 
thus,  by  viewing  their  facts  from  two  distinct 
angles  we  learn  how  vital  phases  of  industrial 
economy  present  themselves  to  a  man  and  to  a 
woman  who  are  among  the  acutest  investigators 
of  our  time. 

GEORGE  ILES. 

New  York,  June  14,  1917. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION IX 

CHAPTER  I 

WHAT    SCIENTIFIC    MANAGEMENT    MEANS    TO 

AMERICA'S  INDUSTRIAL  POSITION     .      .      .     3-20 

MEANING,    SCOPE,    AIMS    AND    METHODS    OF    SCIENTIFIC 

MANAGEMENT 3 

RELATIVE  OF  IDUSTRIAL  GROWTH  TO  PROGRESS  AND  MAIN- 
TENANCE        5 

INCREASING  LIKENESS  BETWEEN  ALL  COUNTRIES        .     ,.  7 

NEED  FOR  INTENSIVE  STUDY  OF  CAUSES  OF  SUPREMACY  .  8 
NECESSITY  FOR  CONSERVATION  OF  MATERIALS  AND  HUMAN 

ELEMENT 9 

PRESENT  LACK  OF  STANDARDIZATION 12 

PLACE  OF  LABORATORY  RESEARCH  IN  MOTION,  TIME  AND 

FATIGUE    STUDY 15 

RESULTING  LAWS  FOR  HANDLING  THE  HUMAN  ELEMENT  17 
SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  A  CONSERVER  OF  THE  HUMAN 

ELEMENT  AND  A  CREATOR  OF  CO-OPERATION     ....  17 

PROGRESSIVE  STAGES  IN  CO-OPERATION 19 

AMERICA'S  SUPREMACY  DEPENDS  ON  HER  CONSERVATION 

AND  CO-OPERATION 19 

AMERICA'S  NEED  OF  ADOPTING  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  20 

CHAPTER  II 

UNITS,  METHODS,  AND  DEVICES  OF  MEASURE- 
MENT UNDER,  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  .  21-40 

FUNCTIONS  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  AND  THEIR  RE-  . 

LATIONS 214 

CONTRAST  BETWEEN  MILITARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGE- 
MENT        21^ 

OUTLINE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT 22-* 

DIVISION  BETWEEN  PLANNING  AND  PERFORMING   ...  22 

THE  PLANNING  DEPARTMENT 23 

xiii 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

THE   PERFORMING   DEPARTMENT 24 

CO-OPERATION  AS  A  RESULT  OF  FUNCTIONALIZATION   .     .  29 

ADVANTAGES  TO  THE  WORKER 33 

NEEDS  FOR  UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES  OF  MEASURE- 
MENT        34 

PLACE  OF  MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY  IN  MEASURE- 
MENT     34 

SIZE  OF  UNIT  TO  BE  MEASURED 35 

SELECTION   OF   DEVICE 36 

RESULTS    OF    MEASUREMENT 37 

BENEFITS  TO  WORKER 39 

NEED  FOR  GO-OPERATION  TO  AVOID  WASTEFUL  REPETITION  40 

CHAPTER  III 

MOTION    STUDY    AS    AN    INDUSTRIAL    OPPOR- 
TUNITY       41-56 

WASTE  FROM  INEFFICIENT  MOTIONS  AND  THEIR  FATIGUE  4ly 

IMPORTANCE  OF   WASTE   ELIMINATION 41 

DELAY  IN  APPRECIATING  HUMAN  ELEMENT 41 

MOTION  STUDY  AS  AN  ELIMINATOR  OF  HUMAN  WASTE  .     .  42 

EXAMPLES  OF  MOTION  ECONOMY 42 

DEFINITION    OF   MOTION    STUDY 43 

UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES  OF  MOTION  STUDY  ...  44 

THE    COST    ELEMENT 44 

MICROMOTION     STUDY 45 

THE  CYCLEGRAPH  METHOD 46 

DERIVATION  OF   STANDARD  METHOD 47 

RESULTS  OF  MOTION   STUDY 48 

THINKING  IN   ELEMENTARY   MOTIONS 49 

BENEFITS  TO  WORKERS 50 

BETTERMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  SELECTION 50 

RELATION  TO  SCHOOL  TRAINING 52 

EFFECT  ON  SOCIETY  .  53 

RELATION   TO  EDUCATION 53 

RECLASSIFICATION  AND  STANDARDIZATION  OF  TRADES  .     .  53 

NEED  FOR  NATIONAL  BUREAU  OF  STANDARDS 55 

MOTION  STUDY  THE  GREAT  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY  OF 

THIS    COUNTRY 56 

CHAPTER,  IV 

MOTION    STUDY    AND    TIME    STUDY    INSTRU- 
MENTS OF  PRECISION 57-72 

SLOW  APPRECIATION  OF  WASTE  FROM  USELESS  MOTIONS  57 


CONTENTS  xv 

PAGE 

RELATION   OF  MOTION   AND  TIME   STUDY  TO   SCIENTIFIC 

MANAGEMENT 

DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY  . 

STUDIES  MADE  WITHOUT  DEVICES 

EARLY   TIME    STUDY    DEVICES 

RELATIONS  OF  DEVICES  TO  THE  HUMAN  ELEMENT  ...  63 

REQUIREMENTS  OF  ADEQUATE  DEVICES 64 

THE  CAMERA  AS  A  MOTION  STUDY  DEVICE 65 

THE   MICROCHRONOMETEB 66 

STEREOSCOPIC  RECORDS 67 

OYCLEGRAPH  AND  STEREOCYCLEGRAPH  APPARATUS  ...  67 

SPECIAL  DEVICES .     .  69 

THE  DOUBLE  CINEMATOGRAPH 69 

AUTO  MJOTION  STUDY  APPARATUS 70 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THESE  DEVICES 71 

AVAILABILITY  AND  Low  COST 72 

CHAPTER  V 

CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH    MOTION    DEVICES    FOR 

MEASURING  ACHIEVEMENT 73-96 

NEED  FOR  CONSERVATION  OF  HUMAN  ELEMENT  ....  73 
ECONOMY    DEMANDS    WASTE    ELIMINATION    AND    CON- 
SERVATION      75 

MEASUREMENT  ESSENTIAL  TO  CONSERVATION    ....  76 

RECORDS  OF  ACTIVITY  AND  FATIGUE  INDISPENSABLE  .     .  77 

WORK  OF  EDUCATOR 77 

PART  OF  ENGINEER  IN  THIS  WORK 77 

MOTION  STUDY  AS  A  PLAN  OF  MEASUREMENT  ....  78 

PHOTOGRAPHS  AS  RECORDS t£0< 

MICROMOTION  RECORDS &0 

USE  OF  RECORDS  AS  TEACHING  DEVICES 81 

NEED  FOR  CYCLEGRAPH  RECORDS   . 83 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  STEROCHRONOCYCLEGRAPH    ...  84 

REDUCING  THE  COST  OF  INVESTIGATIONS 85 

THE  PENETRATING  SCREEN 86 

THE    MOTION    MODEL ^8jf 

RESULTING  STANDARD  MOTIONS  AND  METHODS  ....  91 

INFLUENCE  ON  RECLASSIFYING  ACTIVITIES 92 

THE  SIMULTANEOUS  MOTION  CYCLE  CHART   ....  98 

NEED  FOR  EXCHANGE  OF  DATA   ,  95 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI  PAGE 

MOTION  MODELS :  THEIR  USE  IN  THE  TRANS- 
FERENCE OF  EXPERIENCE  AND  THE  PRES- 
ENTATION OF  COMPARATIVE  RESULTS  IN 
EDUCATIONAL  METHODS 97-130 

ADVANCES  IN  EDUCATION  DEMAND  MEASUREMENT  ...     97 
MEASUREMENT  IMPLIES  UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES   .     98 
MOTION  MODELS  ARE  DEVICES  FOR  MEASURING  AND  RECORD- 
ING BEHAVIOR 98 

PLACE  IN  CORRELATING  SHOP  AND  SCHOOL  TEACHING  .  .  102 
DEFINITION  AND  HISTORY  OF  MOTION  MODEL  .  .  .  r 
DERIVATION  FROM  EARLY  MOTION  STUDIES  ....  .V105 
"  DEMONSTRATION  "  MOTIONS  DIFFERENT  FROM  "  WORK-  **> 

ING"     MOTIONS 110 

SLOW  MOTIONS  DIFFERENT  FROM  FAST  MOTIONS  .  .  .  110 
"  SHORT  OUTS  "  SHOW  INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES  .  .  .  Ill 
BEST  METHOD  SYNTHESIZED  FROM  SEVERAL  METHODS  .  Ill 
IMPORTANCE  OF  TEACHING  RIGHT  MOTIONS  FIRST  .  .  112 
RELATION  OF  MOTION  MODEL  TO  CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  .  .  117 
METHODS  OF  MAKING  AND  USING  MOTION  MODELS  .  .  122 
THE  MOTION  MODELS  AS  AN  AID  TO  STANDARDIZATION  .  .  123 

MOTION  MODELS  AND  VISUALIZATION 125 

BENEFITS  TO  MAKERS  OF  MOTION  MODELS  ....  125 
USE  IN  TRANSFER  OF  EXPERIENCE  AND  SKILL  ....  126 

FIELD  OF  APPLICATION 128 

USE  AS  RECORDER  OF  THE  LEARNING  PROCESS  .  .  .  .129 
CONSERVATION  OF  INTELLIGENCE  AND  SKILL  .  130 


CHAPTER  VII 
MOTION  STUDY  FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  131-157 

IMPORTANCE  OF   CRIPPLED   SOLDIER   PROBLEM    ....  131 

DIVERSITY  OF  TYPES   OF  CRIPPLES 132 

WORK  OF  THE  EDUCATOR 133 

WORK  OF  THE  ENGINEER 134 

METHOD  OF  ATTACK  OF  THE  PROBLEM 

APPLICATION  OF  MOTION   STUDY 

RELATION  TO  PLACEMENT 

USE  OF  SIMULTANEOUS  MOTION  CYCLE  CHART  ....  137 

DESCRIPTION    OF    CHART 138 

METHODS  OF  GATHERING  DATA  TO  BE  CHARTED  ....  140 

CHART  AS  A  TEACHING  DEVICE 141 

PROVISION    FOR    FATIGUE    ,                      142 


CONTENTS  xvii 

PAGE 

NEED  FOB  CO-OPERATION 144 

DISCUSSION 145 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  PRACTICE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  158-186 

RELATION  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  TO  PRACTICE  .     .  158 

REQUISITIES  OF  EFFICIENT   MANAGEMENT 159 

NECESSITY  FOR  INSURING  RIGHT  WORKNG  CONDITIONS   .  159 

BENEFITS   TO   EMPLOYEES 161 

THE  ADEQUATE  AND  SATISFYING  WAGE 162 

REGULARITY  OF  EMPLOYMENT 163 

EFFICIENT  PLACEMENT 164 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR  ADVANCEMENT 165 

TEACHING 167 

EFFECT  ON  FATIGUE 168 

DECREASE   OF   MONOTONY 174 

CONFUSION     BETWEEN     "  HABITUAL  "     AND     "  MONOT- 
ONOUS"   178 

BENEFITS  OF  HABIT 179 

MONOTONY  VERSUS  INTEREST 180 

PROVISION  FOR  MENTAL  STIMULUS    .     .     .     .     .     .     .  183 

UNIVERSAL  BENEFIT  OF  PRACTICE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGE- 
MENT .     .  .  185 


CHAPTER  IX 
fTHE  THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION  187-201 

IMPORTANCE  OF  ADEQUATE  PROMOTION 187 

RELATION  OF  PLACEMENT  TO  PROMOTION 188 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION   .  189 

PLACE  OF  MASTER  PROMOTION  CHART 190 

INDUSTRIAL  PROMOTION  CHARTS  OR  "  FORTUNE  SHEETS  "  .  191 
PROVISION  FOR  THOSE  WHO  REACH  "ULTIMATE"  POSI- 
TIONS       195 

TRANSFORMATION   OF  "BLIND  ALLEY"  JOBS    ....  196 
PLACE  OF  THE  "  GODFATHER  "  OR  "  BIG  BROTHER  "...  197 

RESULTS  OF  THREE  POSITION  PLAN 198 

BENEFITS  TO  EMPLOYMENT   MANAGER 199 

RELATION  OF  SUCCESS  TO  UNDERLYING  DESIRE  TO  CO-OPER- 
ATE     201 


xviii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  X  PAGE 

THE  EFFECT  OF  MOTION  STUDY  UPON  THE 

WORKERS 202-211 

RELATION  OF  MOTION  STUDY  TO  INTEREST  .     .     .     .  (  .  202 

PART  OF   WORKER  IN   MAKING   INVESTIGATIONS    . 

INTEREST  OF  WORKER  IN  PSYCHOLOGICAL  PROBLEM    .     .  204 

EFFECT  OF  MOTION  STUDY  ON  OBSERVER 205 

BENEFITS  OF  MAKING  MOTION  MODELS 206 

BROADENING    OF    INTERESTS 207 

EFFECTS  ON  THE  WORKER 207 

CO-OPERATION  BETWEEN  MANAGEMENT  AND  WORKERS  .     .  209 

EFFECTS   ON   INCREASE  OF   EDUCATION 210 

SIMULTANEOUS  INCREASE  OF  EFFICIENCY,  PROSPERITY  AND 

HAPPINESS 211 

INDEX  .  213 


APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 


APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

WHAT  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT 
MEANS  TO  AMERICA'S  INDUS- 
TRIAL POSITION  1 

There  is  some  confusion  to-day  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  scientific  management.     This  concerns  it- 
self with  the  nature  of  such  management  itself, 
with  the  scope  or  field  to  which  such  management 
applies,  and  with  the  aims  that  it  desires  to  at- 
tain.    Scientific  management  is  simply  manage-\|j 
ment  that  is  based  upon  actual  measurement,  ij 
Its  skilful  application  is  an  art  that  must  be  ac- 
quired, but  its  fundamental  principles  have  the 
exactness  of  scientific  laws  which  are  open  to 
study  by  every  one.    We  have  here  nothing  hid- , 
den  or  occult  or  secret,  like  the  working  practices  I  ^ 
of  an  old-time  craft ;  we  have  here  a  science  that/ 
is  the  result  of  accurately  recorded,  exact  investi- 
gation.    Its  results  are  formulated,  or  are  being 

i  Reprinted  from  "  The  Annals "  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Publication  No.  935. 

3 


4  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

formulated,  into  such  shape  that  they  may  be 
utilised  by  all  who  have  the  desire  to  study  them 
and  the  concentration  to  master  them.  The  lead- 
ers in  the  field  are,  as  rapidly  as  possible,  pub- 
lishing these  results,  that  progress  may  take  place 
from  the  stage  of  highest  present  achievement, 
and  that  no  time  or  effort  may  be  wasted  in  re- 
making investigations  whose  results  are  already 
known  and  accurately  recorded.  The  scope  of 
this  management,  which  may  truly  be  called  scien- 
tific, is  unlimited.  It  applies  to  all  fields  of  ac- 
tivity, mental  and  physical.  Its  laws  are  uni- 
versal, and,  to  be  of  use  in  any  particular  field, 
require  only  to  be  translated  into  the  vocabulary 
of  the  trained  and  progressive  workers  in  that 
field. 

The  greatest  misunderstandings  occur  as  to  the 
aims  of  scientific  management.  Its  fundamental 
aim  is  the  elimination  of  waste,  the  attainment  of 
worth-while  desired  results  with  the  least  neces- 
sary amount  of  time  and  effort.  Scientific  man- 
agement may,  and  often  does,  result  in  expansion, 
but  its  primary  aim  is  conservation  and  savings, 
making  an  adequate  use  of  every  ounce  of  energy 
of  any  type  that  is  expended. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  5 

Scientific  management,  then,  in  attacking  any 
problem  has  in  mind  the  question  —  How  may 
what  is  here  available  be  best  used?  It  considers 
the  problem,  in  every  case,  according  to  the 
scientific  method ;  that  is,  by  dividing  it  into  its 
elements  and  submitting  each  one  of  these  to  de- 
tailed study.  Every  problem  presents  two  ele- 
ments: the  human  element,  and  the  materials 
element.  By  the  materials  element  we  mean  the 
type  of  material  used,  the  quality  of  material 
used,  the  quantity  of  material  used,  the  manner  in 
which  the  material  is  used,  with  conclusions  as 
to  why  the  material  is  chosen  and  handled  as 
it  is.  In  other  words,  we  would  apply  to  the 
material  the  familiar  questions,  what,  how  much, 
how,  when,  where,  and  why.  These  same  ques- 
tions are  applied  to  the  human  element;  that  is 
to  say,  to  all  members  of  the  organisation. 

Having  in  mind  now  the  principles  and  prac- 
tice of  scientific  management,  we  can  consider  its 
relation  to  the  industrial  position  of  any  country. 
Industrial  growth,  like  all  other  growth,  consists 
of  progress  and  maintenance ;  that  is,  of  advances 
over  and  beyond  present  achievement  and  of  mak- 
ing adequate  provision  for  holding  any  advantage 


6  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

that  one  may  gain.  It  is  generally  realised  that 
maintenance  contains  always  the  thought  of  con- 
servation, that  it  is  impossible  to  hold  any  ad- 
vantage without  making  careful  provision  for 
using  one's  resources  in  the  best  possible  manner. 
It  is  not  so  generally  realised  that  progress  also 
implies  constantly  this  same  conservation.  The 
reason  for  this  is  the  result  of  a  confusion  be- 
tween saving,  or  conserving,  and  hoarding.  True 

mseryation  contains  no  thought  of  miserliness 
or  niggardliness.  It  is  based  upon  a  broad  out- 
look on  life  andupoiTthe  needs  of  lxre""srtTra&en, 
upon  a  willingngss  to  pay  t^e^fuljTjSstprice  for 
,what  is  wanted,  but  an  unwillingnejsjojaay^any 

lore  than  is  necessary.  Progress  differs  from 
lack  of  progress,  fundamentally,  not  because  the 
progressive  man  is  willing  to  pay  more  than  the 
unprogressive  man  will,  but  because  the  progres- 
sive man  has  a  broader  outlook  and  a  keener  in- 
sight, hence,  a  more  adequate  knowledge  of  where 
and  when  it  is  necessary  to  pay.  The  unprogres- 
sive man  or  nation  suffers  from  a  limited  outlook 
that  makes  it  practically  impossible  to  make  a 
just  estimate  as  to  what  is  worth  while. 

When  we  compare  the  various  countries  of  the 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  7 

world,  and  try  to  estimate  their  relative  indus- 
trial positions,  we  find  a  strong  relationship  be^ 
tween  conservation  in  its  highest  sense  and  indus- 
trial supremacy.  Again,  as  we  turn  to  history, 
we  find  this  same  relationship  constantly  mani- 
festing itself;  that  is,  progress  depending  upon 
an  ability  to  see  what  is  worth-while,  and  a  will- 
ingness to  pay  for  that  and  that  only,  and  stabil- 
ity or  maintenance  depending  upon  an  efficient 
handling  of  available  resources. 

As  we  review  history,  and  observe  present  con- 
ditions, we  see  that  the  differences  between  vari- 
ous countries  are  becoming  less  and  less,  as  time 
goes  on.  Transportation,  with  its  numerous  by- 
products that  affect  both  the  material  and  the 
human  element,  is  increasing  the  likeness  be- 
tween different  countries  at  an  astounding  rate. 
This  means  that  industrial  supremacy  will  de- 
pend more  and  more  upon  the  handling  of  avail- 
able resources  and  less  and  less  upon  distinctive 
features  in  these  resources  themselves.  The 
calamitous  war,  which  is  now  apparently  offering 
such  a  serious  check  to  industrial  progress,  is 
Contributing  toward  ultimately  making  working 
conditions  more  similar,  in  that  many  countries 


8  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

are  being  thrown  upon  their  own  resources  for 
both  materials  and  men,  and  are  being  forced  to 
make  discoveries  that  will  more  nearly  equalise 
these  resources. 

/  Another  outcome  of  this  war,  that  should  prove 
of  advantage  to  the  world,  is  the  emphasis  that 
is  being  laid  upon  the  causes  of  industrial  posi- 
tion and  industrial  supremacy  and  the  resulting 
study  that  is  being  made  as  to  the  reasons  for 
such  supremacy.  Such  a  study  should  be  par- 
ticularly profitable  here  in  America.  This  coun- 
try has  always  "  conceded  "  her  important  indus- 
trial position.  She  has  realised  thoroughly  her 
enormous  natural  resources  and  also  her  wonder- 
ful human  resources  in  that  she  is  "  the  melting 
pot  of  the  nations."  It  is  only  within  the  life- 
time of  those  still  young  among  us  that  we  have 
come  to  realise  the  necessity  of  conserving  our 
natural  resources.  It  has  not  yet  reached  the 
attention  of  many  among  us  that  our  human  re- 
sources are  as  worthy,  in  fact,  infinitely  more 
worthy,  of  being  conserved. 

It  is  self-evident,  then,  that  to  attain  and  main- 
tain an  industrial  position  of  which  she  may  be 
proud,  America  must  conserve  both  her  natural 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  9 

and  her  human  resources.  If  she  hopes  for  in- 
dustrial supremacy,  she  must  set  about  this  con- 
servation with  energy,  and  must  pursue  it  unre- 
mittently. 

The  writers  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Eu- 
ropean industrial  conditions,  through  having 
done  business  simultaneously  in  this  country  and 
abroad  for  many  years,  through  frequent  trips 
abroad  before  the  war,  through  having  crossed 
the  boundaries  of  many  of  the  warring  countries 
many  times  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  and 
through  having  observed  carefully  industrial  con- 
ditions and  methods.  Their  opinion,  which  is 
that  of  all  who  have  made  intensive  studies  of 
these  conditions,  is  that  America  is  far  behind**V\ 
European  countries  in  conservation  of  the  ma-  \] 
terials  element,  both  natural  and  manufactured 
resources.  This  statement  needs  no  proof  in  this 
place.  The  fact  it  contains  is  universally  ac- 
cepted by  serious  thinkers  and  investigators.  It 
is  equally  true  that  up  to  recent  times  European 
countries  have  done  comparatively  little  toward 
conserving  the  human  element.  ~- 

The  hope  of  this  country  lies,  then,  in  equalling 
or  surpassing  foreign  conservation  of  material 


10  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

and  in  maintaining  or  progressing  beyond  our 
present  conservation  of  the  human  element.  The 
material  problem  is  being  attacked  along  different 
lines  in  a  more  or  less  systematic  manner.  We 
all  appreciate  the  benefits  of  scientific  or  intensive 
farming,  until  now  our  native  farmers,  working 
under  the  direction  of  and  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  get  results  that 
equal  those  of  European  farmers,  in  their  native 
lands,  or  here  in  ours.  The  importance  of  labor- 
atory analysis  of  materials  and  the  help  that  ap- 
plied science  can  render  and  is  more  and  more 
rendering  to  the  industries  are  also  being  recog- 
nised. Agricultural  experience  has  taught  the 
valuable  lesson  that  it  is  possible  to  get  great 
output,  yet,  at  the  same  time,  leave  the  producing 
force  unimpaired,  by  a  proper  expenditure  of 
money  and  brains.  Experience  with  applied  sci- 
ence has  taught  that  by-products,  as  well  as 
products,  must  be  considered,  and  that  the  exact 
methods  of  science  often  bring  results  that  are 
beyond  those  looked  for  or  hoped  for.  It  has 
been  common  practice  to  consider  a  transaction 
satisfactory,  or  better,  if  it  fulfilled  one's  expecta- 
tions, to  lay  emphasis  upon  the  result  rather  than 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  11 

to  standardise  the  means  or  method.  Laboratory 
practice  has  taught  that  while  the  immediate  re- 
sults are  important,  the  standardisation  of  the 
method  is  more  important,  since  the  unexpected 
ultimate  results,  sometimes  called  by-products, 
are  often  by  far  the  most  valuable  outcome  of 
the  work.  Certain  industries  in  this  country 
have  gone  far  toward  applying  scientific  methods 
to  the  material  element,  but  no  one  of  us  need  go 
outside  his  own  experience  to  be  able  to  mention 
other  industries  that  as  yet  have  no  conception 
of  what  such  work  means. 

Much  has  been  done  not  only  in  the  analysis  of 
materials,  but  also  with  the  handling  of  materj; 
als.  America  has  cause  to  be  proud  of  her  ma- 
chines and  her  tools.  The  chief  criticism  that  we 
may  make  of  present  practice  in  this  field  is  that 


of  lack  of  standardisation.  /The  reasons  for  this 
are  many.  One  is  business  competition,  though 
the  feeling  is  gradually  dying  out  that  making 
one's  product  markedly  different  from  that  of  all 
others  is  a  strong  selling  advantage.  Another  is 
the  strong  feeling  of  independence  and  individual- 
ity that  leads  one  to  prefer  a  thing  because  it  is 
different  rather  than  because  it  is  adequate  to  the 


12  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

purpose  for  which  it  is  needed.  A  third  is  a  lack 
of  channels  for  direct  and  easy  communication  of 
ideas.  This  is  being  supplied  both  through  or- 
ganisations and  publications.  A  fourth  is  the 
former  lack  of  standardising  bodies  or  bureaus, 
a  lack  which  is  also  being  supplied  as  the  demand 
for  such  bodies  increases. 

Because  of  the  highly  specialised  nature  of 
much  present-day  work,  few  of  us  realise  how 
widespread,  almost  universal,  the  lack  of  stand- 
ardisation is.  It  is  only  necessary  to  turn, 
however,  to  such  a  field  of  activity  as  surgery, 
which  engages  the  attention  of  some  of  the  finest 
brains  in  the  country,  and  which  is  apt  to  come, 
sooner  or  later  in  some  way,  into  the  field  of  ex- 
perience of  every  one,  to  see  a  striking  object 
lesson  of  lack  of  standardisation  both  of  tools 
aQfl  of  method. 

It  is  the  work  of  scientific  management  to  in- 
sist on  standardisation  in  all  fields,  and  to  base 
such  standardisation  upon  accurate  measure- 
^ment.  Scientific  management  is  not  remote,  or 
different  from  other  fields  of  activity.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  handling  of  the  materials  element, 
it  does  not  attempt  to  discard  the  methods  of 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  13 

attack  of  intensive  agriculture  or  of  the  labora- 
tory of  the  applied  scientists;  on  the  contrary, 
it  uses  the  results  of  workers  in  such  fields  as 
these  to  as  great  an  extent  as  possible. 

There  is  a  widespread  feeling  that  scientific 
management  claims  to  be  something  new,  with 
methods  that  are  different  from  those  used  by 
other  conserving  activities.  This  is  not  at  all  the 
case.  It  is  the  boast  of  scientific  management 
that  it  gathers  together  the  results  and  methods 
of  all  conserving  activities,  formulates  these  into 
a  working  practice,  and  broadens  their  field  of 
application.  In  handling  the  materials  element, 
then,  scientific  management  analyses  all  success- 
ful existing  practices  in  every  line,  and  synthe- 
sises  such  elements  as  accurate  measurement 
proves  to  be  valuable  into  standards.  These 
standards  are  maintained  until  suggested  im- 
provements have  passed  the  same  rigid  examina- 
tion, and  are  in  such  form  that  they  may  be  incor- 
porated into  new  standards. 

Turning  now  to  the  field  of  the  human  element 
—  by  far  the  more  important  field  —  we  find  that, 
while  there  is  much  talk  of  work  in  that  field 
to-day,  comparatively  little  has  actually  been  ac- 


14  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

complished.  There  have,  in  all  places  and  times, 
been  more  or  less  spasmodic  and  unsystematic  at- 
tempts to  conserve  human  energy,  or  to  use  it  for 
the  greatest  benefit  of  all  concerned;  but  there 
has  not  been  steady  and  conspicuous  progress  in 
this  work  for  several  reasons;  1.  Because  the 
methods  used  were  not  accurately  measured  and 
were  not  standardised.  This  made  it  impossible 
for  the  individual  conserver  to  accomplish  much 
of  lasting  benefit.  2.  Because  of  lack  of  co-oper- 
ation between  such  conservers. 

It  is  the  task  of  scientific  management  to  sup- 
ply both  these  wants.  Success  in  handling  the 
human  element,  like  success  in  handling  the  ma- 
terials element,  depends  upon  knowledge  of  the 
element  itself  and  knowledge  as  to  how  it  can 
best  be  handled.  One  great  work  of  scientific 
management  has  been  to  show  the  world  how  lit- 
tle actual  knowledge  it  has  possessed  of  the  hu- 
man element  as  engaged  in  the  work  in  the  indus- 
tries. Through  motion  study  and  fatigue  study 
and  the  accompanying  time  study,  we  have  come 
to  know  the  capabilities  of  the  worker,  the  de- 
mands of  the  work,  the  fatigue  that  the  worker 
suffers  at  the  work,  and  the  amount  and  nature 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  15 

of  the  rest  required  to  overcome  the  fatigue. 

Those  not  actively  interested  in  the  industries 
can  scarcely  realise  that  the  process  of  keeping 
the  soil  at  its  full  producing  capacity  and  of 
providing  depleted  energy  is  infinitely  more 
standardised  and  more  widely  used  than  the 
process  of  providing  that  the  human  organism 
overcome  fatigue  and  return  to  its  normal  work- 
ing capacity  in  the  shortest  amount  of  time  pos- 
sible. Scientific  provision  for  such  recovery  in 
the  industries,  before  the  days  of  scientific  man- 
agement, was  unknown. 

It  is  even  more  surprising  that  only  the  pio- 
neers in  the  work  realise  the  application  of  any 
necessity  for  the  laboratory  method  in  the  study 
of  the  human  element  as  it  appears  in  the  indus- 
tries. When  making  accurate  measurements,  the 
number  of  variables  involved  must  be  reduced  to 
as  great  a  degree  as  possible.  Only  in  the  labora- 
tory can  this  be  successfully  done.  It  is  fortu- 
nate for  scientific  management  that  its  initial  in- 
troduction in  the  industries  has  been  made  by 
engineers  rather  than  by  men  who  are  primarily 
laboratory  scientists,  for  this  reason :  the  engineer 
has  been  forced  by  his  training  to  consider  con- 


16  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

stantly  immediate  as  well  as  ultimate  results,  and 
resent  as  well  as  future  savings.  Investigations 
of  scientific  management  have,  therefore,  been 
made  to  pay  from  the  start  in  money  savings,  as 
well  as  in  savings  of  energy  of  all  kinds.  We 
note  this  in  the  results  of  motion  study,  fatigue 
study,  and  the  accompanying  time  study. 

As  an  example,  take  the  laboratory  investiga- 
tions in  motion  study.  These,  where  possible, 
are  made  by  us  in  the  laboratory,  which  is  a  room 
specially  set  apart  in  the  plant  for  research  pur- 
poses. Here  the  worker  to  be  studied,  with  the 
necessary  apparatus  for  doing  the  work  and  for 
measuring  the  motions,  and  the  observer,  investi- 
gate the  operation  under  typical  laboratory  con- 
ditions. The  product  of  this  is  data  that  are  more 
nearly  accurate  than  could  be  secured  with  the 
distractions  and  many  variables  of  shop  condi- 
tions. The  by-product  of  this  work,  which  is 
a  typical  by-product  of  engineer-scientists'  work, 
is  that  the  conditions  of  performing  the  opera- 
tion in  the  laboratory  become  a  practical  work- 
ing model  of  what  the  shop  conditions  must  ulti- 
mately be.  When  the  best  method  of  doing  the 
work  with  the  existing  apparatus  has  been  de- 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  17 

termined  in  the  laboratory,  the  working  condi- 
tions, as  well  as  the  motions  that  make  this  re- 
sult possible,  are  standardised,  and  the  working 
conditions  in  the  shop  are  changed,  until  they  re- 
semble the  working  conditions  in  the  laboratory. 
In  the  same  way,  the  length  and  periodicity  of  in- 
tervals to  be  allowed  for  overcoming  fatigue,  and 
the  best  devices  for  eliminating  unnecessary  fa- 
tigue and  for  overcoming  necessary  fatigue,  are 
determined  during  the  investigation,  and  are  in- 
corporated into  shop  practice. 

The  various  measurements  taken  by  scientific 
management  and  the  guiding  laws  under  which 
these  are  grouped  determine  not  only  the  nature 
of  the  human  element,  but  the  methods  by  which 
it  is  to  be  handled.  Motion  study,  fatigue  study, 
the  measures  supplied  by  psychology, —  these  re- 
sult in  the  working  practice  that  fits  the  work 
to  the  worker,  and  produces  more  output  with 
less  effort,  with  its  consequent  greater  pay  for 
every  ounce  of  effort  expended. 

Through  scientific  management,  then,  the  in- 
dividual conserver  is  enabled  to  progress  con- 
stantly and  to  maintain  each  successful  stage  in 
the  development.  Scientific  management  can, 


18  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

i 
also,  and  does,  wherever  permitted,  provide  for 

co-operation  among  conservers.    It  does  this  by : 

1.  Demonstrating  the  enormous  waste  resulting  from 
needless  repetition  of  the  same  investigation. 

2.  Providing  standards  which  must  be  recognised  as 
worthy  of  adoption,  since  they  are  the  results  of 
measurement. 

3.  Emphasising  the  importance  of  teaching  and  of 
the  transference  of  skill,  which  depend  upon  co- 

X  JT  A 

operation. 

4.  Showing  that  maintenance  depends,  in  the  final 
analysis,  upon  co-operation. 

We  have  formulated  our  programme  for  such 
co-operation  into  the  following  stages : 

Each  individual  to  apply  scientific  management  to) 
his  own  activities,  individual  and  social. 
Groups,  such  as  industrial  organisations,  to  apply 
scientific  management  to  the  group  activity. 

3.  Trades  to  apply  scientific  management  to  the  trade 
activity.     This  includes,  ultimately,  a  reclassifica- 
tion  and  standardization  of  the  trades,  such  as  we 
have  advocated  in  "  Motion  Study."  *    The  trades 
must  be  classified  according  to  the  amount  of  jskill 
iriYoJvpd  i>  tfcjL  motions  used,  and  must  thenHbe 
standardized  in  orcler  that  the  necessary  training 
fpr  sn^peding  in  them  can  be  given. 

4.  Industries  to^apply  scientific  management  to  the 

i  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  New  York,  pages  94-108. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  19 

entire  industry,  with  co-operation  between  the  va- 
rious trades  involved.  ^ 

5.  A  national  bureau  of  standardization  to  collect  and    / 
formulate  the  data  from  all  the  industries  into  na-   / 
tional  standards.  "^at 

6.  An  international  bureau  of  standardization  to  col-     | 
lect  national  standards  and  to  work  for  interna-      J 
tional  co-operation. 

America's  immediate  industrial  position  de- 
pends upon  America's  realisation  of  the  need  for 
conservation,  as  demonstrated  by  scientific  man- 
agement, and  upon  America's  use  of  such  means 
of  conservation  as  scientific  management  offers. 

America's  ultimate  industrial  position  depends 
upon  America's  realisation  that  the  highest  type 
of  conservation  includes  co-operation. 

Individuals,  groups,  trades,  and  industries 
have  realised  and  are  realising  more  and  more, 
daily,  that  it  is  for  the  good  of  all  that  common 
practice  be  standardised  and  that  improvements 
take  place  from  the  highest  common  standard. 
Nations  have  not  yet  come  to  any  great  realisa- 
tion that  this  same  principle  applies  to  interna- 
tional relationships. 

If  America  desires  to  gain  and  maintain  leader- 
ship in  industrial  progress,  she  must  be  the  ad- 


20  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

vocate  of  industrial  conservation  and  co-opera- 
tion, and  must  be  the  example  of  that  readiness 
to  derive  and  to  share  standards  for  which  scien- 
tific management  stands. 


UNITS,  METHODS,  AND  DEVICES  OF 
MEASUREMENT  UNDER  SCIEN- 
TIFIC MANAGEMENT1 

In  any  paper  covering  a  subject  of  such  scope 
as  this,  one  can  hope  to  do  little  more  than  out- 
line the  subject,  but  even  for  such  an  outline  it  is 
necessary  to  show  at  the  outset  the  scheme  of 
division,  recognition,  and  interrelation  of  the 
functions  of  scientific  management. 

This  can  be  done  best  by  showing  graphically 
two  plans  of  management.  The  first  of  these 
(see(Fig.  2)  represents  what  is  variously  known 
as  military  or  traditional  management.  Here 
each  man  is  responsible  to  one  man  only  above 
him,  and  is  in  charge  of  all  those  below  him. 
Thus  it  is  the  custom  for  any  man  to  come  in  con- 
tact with  one  man  above  him  only,  the  line  of  au- 
thority being  single  and  direct.  Traditional 
management  has  been  used  for  centuries  in  mili- 
tary organisations,  and  has  also  been  used  many 

i  Reprinted  from  The  Journal  of  Political  Economy,  Vol. 
XXI. 

21 


22  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

times  in  religious  organisations  and  political  or- 
ganisations. The  division  is  by  men,  by  grades 
of  men,  rather  than  by  functions. 

Because  the  division  is  by  men,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  measure  and  standardise  the  duties  of 
the  positions.  Any  attempt  at  such  measurement 
fand  standardisation  makes  clear  the  fact  that  the 
requirements  of  every  position,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  most  subordinate,  demand  men  of  a 
higher  grade  of  development  than  the  pay  in- 
volved would  justify.  Moreover,  as  the  supposed 
requirements  of  the  positions  are  the  result  of 
guess  or  tradition  rather  than  of  measurement, 
successful  standardisation  would  be  not  only  im- 
practicable, but  impossible. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  lines  of  authority  in  func- 
tional or  scientific  management.  Here  the  divi- 
sion is  by  functions,  the  first  functional  divi- 
sion being  the  separation  of  the  planning  from 
the  performing.  Graphically,  this  separation 
is  represented  by  the  horizontal  line.  All  func- 
tions above  this  line  are  of  the  planning,  all  func- 
tions below  this  line  are  of  the  performing.  Note 
the  functions  shown  on  this  chart,  namely,  four 
functions  in  the  planning  and  four  functions  in 


FIG.  2 

Diagram  illustrating  the  routes  of  authority  under  tradi- 
tional type  of  management. 


FIG.  3 

Diagram  illustrating  the  principle  of  functional  or  sci- 
entific management 


.. 

§66 


6  6  6 


A  i  A  A 


FIG.  2 


DIAGRAMMATIC  CHART  OF 
FUNCTIONAL  FOREMANSHIP 

MM 
SCIFNTIFIC  MANAGEMENT. 

FRANK  B  GILBRETH 


PLANNING 
PERFORMIN 


FIG.  3 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         23 

the  performing.  Note  also  their  relation  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  individual  worker.  This  chart 
shows  one  such  worker  represented  by  the  lowest 
circle.  There  should  be  no  objection  to  repre- 
senting each  individual  worker  by  such  a  circle, 
but  the  relation  of  each  such  worker  to  those  over 
him  is  the  same.  Hence,  the  lowest  circle  is  typi- 
cal. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  worker  receives  orders 
directly  from  eight  different  foremen.  One  might 
suggest,  on  observing  this,  that  it  has  often  been 
said  that  no  man  can  serve  two  masters.  This 
holds  good  to-day,  even  in  scientific  management. 
But  under  scientific  management  the  worker  does 
not  "  serve  eight  masters  "  nor  eight  functional 
foremen,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  receives  help 
from  eight  different  foremen  or  teachers.  In  this 
way,  his  case  is  not  very  different  from  that  of  the 
student  who  receives  instruction  from  eight  dif- 
ferent professors,  in  eight  different  studies. 

The  four  functions  in  the  planning  department 
are  represented  by  (2)  route  man  and  order-of- 
work  man;  (3)  instruction  cards;  (4)  time  and 
cost;  (5)  disciplinarian.  While  we  speak  of 
each  function  as  being  represented  by  one  per- 


24  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

son,  as  a  matter  of  fact  each  function  may  in- 
clude any  number  of  individuals,  according  to  the 
kind  of  work,  and  the  number  necessary  to  per- 
form that  function  as  to  eliminate  all  possible 
waste.  Each  one  of  these  four  men  of  the  four 
functions  in  the  planning  department  is  supreme 
in  his  respective  function.  All  deal  directly  with 
the  worker,  and  all  deal  directly  with  the  four 
functional  foremen  who  are  in  the  performing  de- 
partment. 

Of  the  performing  department  we  have  four 
functions  represented  by  (7)  gang  boss;  (8) 
speed  boss;  (9)  repair  boss;  (10)  inspector. 
These  functions,  like  those  of  the  planning  de- 
partment, are  represented  by  as  many  men  as  the 
nature  and  amount  of  work  justifies.  All  such 
representatives  deal,  as  the  chart  indicates,  di- 
rectly both  with  all  individuals  in  the  planning 
department,  and  with  each  individual  worker. 

The  fact  that  all  divisions  represented  by  this 
chart  are  made  on  the  basis  of  the  nature  of  the 
work  that  is  to  be  done,  makes  possible  units  for 
measuring  and  standardising  the  duties  of  the 
man  or  men  who  hold  the  positions.  The  deter- 
mining, grouping,  and  assigning  of  these  duties  is 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES          25 

done  by  measurement ;  hence  the  resultant  stand- 
ardisation is  successful.  A  statement  of  the  du- 
ties of  each  function  will  make  clear  the  amount 
of  standardisation  that  is  possible. 

Route  Man. —  The  duty  of  the  route  man 
(function  No.  2)  is  to  determine  and  plan  in  ad- 
vance the  path  of  each  piece  of  material,  worked 
and  unworked,  as  it  passes  through  the  shop  or  as 
it  is  handled  by  each  and  every  member  of  the  or- 
ganisation who  has  anything  to  do  with  it.  He  is 
to  decide  the  three  dimensions  of  the  path,  and 
the  route  that  the  material  is  to  pass  through, 
whether  it  is  to  go  to  the  stores  or  into  temporary 
storage  stations,  or  directly  through  the  shop  as 
fast  as  the  operations  connected  with  it  will  per- 
mit. His  function  is  not  simply  to  look  after 
the  details  of  the  moving ;  he  must  also  determine 
the  "  when  "  and  in  many  cases  the  "  who  "  as 
well  as  the  "  where."  Broadly,  he  determines  the 
entire  transportation  career  of  the  material.  For 
example,  in  building  operations,  he  would  deter- 
mine where  the  car  was  to  be  placed  to  be  un- 
loaded, where  the  material  was  to  be  unloaded, 
when  it  was  to  be  moved  into  the  building,  and 
exactly  what  path  it  should  follow  across  the 


26  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

floor,  up  elevators  and  to  its  final  resting-place, 
and  who  should  perform  each  operation. 

Often  the  route  man  is  able  to  simplify  greatly 
the  path  of  the  materials,  especially  on  large  or- 
ders, by  a  rearrangement  or  routing  of  the  ma- 
chinery. We  have  had  one  case  in  our  experi- 
ence where  it  was  cheaper,  in  a  woodworking 
shop,  to  have  the  machinery  placed  on  heavy 
pieces  not  attached  to  the  floor,  each  machine  op- 
erated by  an  individual  motor,  and  to  move  the 
machinery,  in  order  to  accommodate  the  pecu- 
liarities of  sequence  of  events  of  each  particular 
order,  when  the  order  was  large  enough  to  war- 
rant moving  the  machinery.  The  route  man's 
duties,  also,  oftentimes  involve  determining  a  new 
path,  ordering  that  machinery  not  used  be  re- 
moved, so  that  he  can  route  his  material  by  a 
more  economical  method.  After  he  has  deter- 
mined the  exact  path  by  which  the  material  shall 
be  routed,  he  embodies  his  conclusions  into  pro- 
cess charts,  route  charts,  and  route  sheets ;  these 
illustrate  his  orders  graphically  and  chronologi- 
cally and  are  worked  out  in  detail  by  the  in- 
struction card  department. 

Instruction  Cards. —  It  must  not  be  supposed 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         27 

that  the  instruction-card  function  consists  merely 
of  the  work  of  writing  out  the  instruction  cards. 
This  is  the  name  of  the  function  in  general,  and 
it  may  be  performed  by  several  men  in  different 
lines  an 4  of  varying  capacity  in  the  instruction- 
card  function ;  that  is  to  say,  the  department  or 
function  may  be  divided  into  measurable  units  or 
subfunctions.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  instruction- 
card  function  to  work  out  in  detail  and  to  devise 
and  construct  an  instruction  card  describing  the 
method  of  least  waste  for  each  element  of  the 
route  sheets  which  are  made  from  the  route 
charts.  The  instruction-card  department  fur- 
nishes in  the  greatest  possible  detail  such  direc- 
tions as  will  show  two  different  classes  of  men 
their  duties,  namely:  (a)  the  worker,  who  must 
know  how  to  perform  the  particular  work  shown 
on  the  instruction  card;  and  (5)  the  functional 
foremen  in  the  performing  department,  who  must 
know  exactly  what  they  are  to  see  that  the  worker 
does  perform,  and  exactly  what  they  are  to  teach 
the  worker  in  order  that  he  may  so  perform  his 
work  as  to  conform  to  the  instruction  card. 

Time  and  Cost. —  After  the  worker  has  per- 
formed his  work,  a  return  of  the  time  that  it  took 


28  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

/K 

him  to  do  his  work,  together  with  its  cost,  goes 

to  the  time  and  cost  clerk  (function  No.  4)  who 
calculates  the  pay-roll,  including  the  bonuses,  and 
the  costs  of  each  piece  or  subdivision  of  the  work. 

Disciplinarian. —  The  disciplinarian  is  the  man 
who  handles  all  matters  in  the  entire  organisa- 
tion pertaining  to  discipline.  He  must  be  a 
broad-gauge  man,  who  is  able  to  keep  peace  in 
the  organisation,  to  anticipate  disagreements  and 
misunderstandings  and  prevent  them  when  pos- 
sible, and  to  arbitrate  or  judge  fairly  such  dis- 
agreements as  do  take  place. 

The  functions  in  the  performing  department 
are  now  to  be'considered. 

Gang  Boss. —  Function  No.  7  is  that  of  the 
teacher,  still  called  "  gang  boss,"  as  it  was  from 
that  function  that  his  work  evolved.  There  may 
be  many  gang  bosses  in  the  performing  depart- 
ment; in  fact  there  are  frequently  five  or  more 
gang  bosses  of  a  single  trade,  with  an  over -gang 
boss  in  charge.  Altogether  there  may  be  in  this 
function  gang  bosses  of  twenty  or  thirty  differ- 
ent trades,  in  fact  of  as  many  trades  as  are  at 
work ;  or,  possibly  one  gang  boss  might  look  after 
two  or  more  trades.  The  gang  boss  under  scien- 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         29 

tific  management  is  not  the  "  strong  arm  "  type 
of  man  represented  by  the  mate  of  the  vessel  of 
former  days,  who  boasted  that  he  could  thrash 
any  man  in  the  entire  crew,  and  often  did  so  for 
no  other  reason  than  to  prove  his  words.  In- 
stead he  is  a  man  who  knows  of  the  measuring 
methods  of  motion-study  and  time-study,  and 
who  can  teach  the  worker  the  methods  shown 
on  the  instruction  card.  In  order  to  get  his 
best  work,  and  to  enlist  his  zeal,  it  is  usually 
necessary  to  pay  him  a  bonus  measured  by 
the  bonus  paid  each  and  every  man  under  him 
who  in  turn  earns  his  bonus ;  and  a  double  bonus 
if  every  man  in  his  gang  earns  the  bonus.  For 
example  suppose  the  gang  boss  received  $3.00  per 
day,  and  had  twenty  men  working  under  him,  he 
would  be  paid,  say,  in  round  numbers,  10  cents 
apiece  for  each  man  under  him  who  received  his 
bonus;  and,  if  all  twenty  men  received  their 
bonus,  he  would  receive  a  double  bonus  of  20  cents 
apiece  for  the  entire  gang. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  such  a  plan  of  man- 
agement as  this  will  bring  out  co-operation  as 
would  no  other  plan ;  and  it  should  be  stated  here 
emphatically  that  there  is  nothing  that  can  per- 


SO  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

manently  bring  about  results  from  scientific  man- 
agement, and  the  economies  that  it  is  possible  to 
effect  by  it,  unless  the  organisation  is  supported 
by  the  hearty  co-operation  of  the  men.  Without 
this  there  is  no  scientific  management. 

Moreover,  since  the  conditions  which,  bring 
about  the  co-operation  are  measured  and  stand- 
ardised, the  result  is  stable.  Co-operation  with- 
out standardisation  is  a  most  unstable  thing, 
likely  to  disappear  at  any  moment  with  a  change 
of  the  individuals  supposed  to  co-operate. 

Speed  Boss. —  Regardless  of  the  popular  im- 
pression as  to  his  duties,  the  speed  boss  (func- 
tion No.  8)  does  not  speed  up  the  men.  In  fact, 
he  has  very  little  to  do  with  speeding  men.  His 
duty  is  to  see  that  the  machinery  moves  at  the  ex- 
act speed  called  for  on  the  individual  instruction 
card.  It  is  obvious  that  there  is  some  one  speed 
that  is  more  desirable  than  any  other  speed;  for 
example,  the  speed  of  a  buzz  planer  or  a  circular 
saw  is  very  dangerous  when  it  is  too  slow,  while 
on  the  other  hand,  the  speed  of  a  fly-wheel  of  an 
engine  is  very  dangerous  when  it  is  too  fast. 
What  is  most  desirable  and  safe  is  the  speed  that 
the  instruction  card  man  attempts  to  set  on  the 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         31 

instruction  card,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  speed 
boss  to  see  that  the  machinery  runs  at  all  times  at 
exactly  the  prescribed  speeds.  He  not  only  shows 
the  worker  how  he  can  make  his  machine  run  at 
the  speed  called  for,  but,  if  there  is  a  question  as 
to  its  being  possible  to  run  at  this  speed,  he  must 
be  prepared  to  teach  the  worker  by  doing  the 
work  himself,  or  provide  a  man  who  can  comply 
with  the  requirements  of  the  instruction  card. 

Repair  Boss. —  Function  No.  9  is  that  of  the  re- 
pair boss.  His  duties  consist  principally  in  see- 
ing that  all  machines  are  kept  clean  and  in 
proper  condition,  and  in  carrying  out  repairs  and 
over-haulings,  such  as  are  called  for  on  instruc- 
tion cards  and  in  standing  orders  that  are  given 
to  him  at  regular,  predetermined  intervals.  In 
this  way  breakdowns  are  so  far  as  possible 
avoided.  The  repair  boss,  however,  must  be  a  re- 
sourceful man,  prepared,  in  case  of  emergency 
to  jump  in  and  repair  any  such  breakdowns  as 
may  occur,  even  in  the  absence  of  precise  direc- 
tions or  of  instruction-card  specifications. 

Inspector. —  Function  No.  10  is  that  of  the  in- 
spector. His  duties  are  decidedly  different  from 
those  of  the  inspector  under  the  old  type  of  man- 


32  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

agement.  For  example,  his  inspection  must  re- 
sult in  prevention  of  error;  in  constructive  crit- 
icism, not  destructive  criticism.  His  decisions 
are  predetermined  by  measurable  limits  of  error 
furnished  both  him  and  the  workman  by  the  in- 
struction-card department. 

Many  times,  under  traditional  management, 
the  inspector  comes  around  after  the  work  is 
done,  condemns  it,  and  walks  away,  leaving  it  to 
others  to  see  that  the  work  is  replaced  to  his  sat- 
isfaction. Under  scientific  management  the  in- 
spector is  required  to  stand  near  the  worker  when 
he  is  handling  a  new  piece  of  work  for  the  first 
time,  in  order  to  see  that  the  worker  thoroughly 
understands  his  work  as  it  progresses.  Thus  the 
first  unit  of  the  material  is  less  likely  to  be 
spoiled.  If  the  worker  has  a  lot  of,  say,  fifty 
pieces,  the  inspector  inspects  not  only  the  first 
piece  most  carefully,  to  make  sure  that  the 
worker  knows  exactly  what  he  is  to  do,  how  he  is 
to  do  it,  and  the  quality  and  the  prescribed  toler- 
ances of  drawing  and  instruction  card  but  also 
the  surrounding  conditions,  equipment,  and  tools 
that  the  important  features  of  maintenance  of 
standards  and  standard  conditions  are  enforced. 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         33 

The  Workman. — As  for  the  individual  worker, 
it  will  be  seen  that  he  does  not  receive  merely  an 
instruction  card,  telling  him  by  units  what  he  is 
to  do,  how  he  is  to  do  it,  how  fast  he  is  expected 
to  do  it,  the  prescribed  quality  of  the  work  which 
must  be  done,  and  how  much  pay  over  and  above 
his  usual  day's  wages  he  will  surely  get  if  he  does 
all  that  is  called  for  on  his  instruction  card.  He 
receives  also  personal  teaching.  The  gang  boss 
acts  as  his  teacher  constantly ;  the  speed  boss  he 
can  call  on  at  all  times  to  assist  him  with  the 
speeds;  the  repair  boss  co-operates  with  him  to 
see  that  his  machine  is  constantly  kept  in  such  re- 
pair that  he  can  earn  his  bonus,  and  the  inspector 
will  also  teach  him  at  any  time,  and  show  him 
wherein  he  is  making  a  deviation  from  the  quality 
called  for.  Moreover,  the  functional  foremen  in 
the  planning  department  are  ready,  at  call,  to  ex- 
plain their  instructions.  Thus  he  has  every  help 
that  is  possible,  to  enable  him  to  earn  the  excep- 
tionally high  wages  that  are  offered  by  this  form 
of  management.  He  is  assured  of  the  "  square 
deal "  from  the  foremen  who  are  over  him,  and 
in  case  others  whose  work  affects  his  are  deviat- 
ing from  their  measurable  schedules,  pro- 


34,  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

grammes,  or  conduct,  he  always  has  the  same  op- 
portunity to  appeal  to  the  disciplinarian,  that  a 
foreman  would  have  in  case  the  worker  was  not 
doing  his  work  as  well  as  he  could  do  it,  or  was 
not  trying  to  co-operate  with  the  other  workers. 

Having  described  briefly  some  of  the  many  di- 
visions and  interrelations  of  the  functions  of 
scientific  management  and  their  foundation  upon 
measurement,  we  are  now  ready  to  concentrate 
upon  one,  to  show  by  a  typical  case  how  division  of 
elements  down  to  fundamental  units  may  result 
in  (a)  determined  units;  (6)  measured  units; 
(c)  devices  of  measurement.  Let  us  take  for  a 
typical  example  two  subfunctions  of  the  instruc- 
tion-card function,  namely,  motion-study  and 
time-study,  and  carry  them  to  micromotion-study. 

Motion-study  is  a  subfunction  of  function  No. 
3  of  the  planning  department.  Just  as  scientific 
management  is  divided  into  functions,  so  each 
function  is  divided  into  subfunctions,  the  basis  of 
division  being  the  same,  i.e.,  duties,  not  men  (see 
Fig.  3).  IMotion-study  is  related  to  all  subfunc- 
tions of  the  instruction-card  function,  but  is  most 
closely  related  to  time-study  and  to  the  deter- 
mining of  methods  of  least  waste.  It  is  related 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         35 

to  time-study  in  that  it  determines  what  path  a 
motion  is  to  follow,  while  time-study  determines 
how  swiftly  the  path  is  to  be  traversed  and  the 
amount  of  rest  required  to  overcome  resulting 
fatigue.  The  two  measure  work  and  determine 
the  best  method  by  which  the  work  can  be  done.] 
Motion-study,  time-study,  micromotion-study, 
fatigue-study,  and  cost-study  are  important  meas- 
ures of  scientific  management,  by  which  the  effi- 
ciency of  each  function  and  subfunction  is  deter- 
mined, tested,  and  checked.  The  unit  to  be 
chosen  for  intensive  study  is  determined  by  the 
amount  of  time  and  money  that  it  is  possible  to 
save  by  the  investigation.  This  unit  is  deter- 
mined by  the  following  method.  The  work  se- 
lected is  divided  into  natural  subdivisions  or 
cycles  of  performance.  Each  cycle  is  then  sub- 
jected to  motion  study,  to  determine  the  best 
method  to  use  in  performing  the  work.  This 
method  is  divided  into  the  smallest  practicable 
units.  These  units  are  timed.  The  timed  units 
are  then  again  subjected  to  motion  study,  for 
more  intensive  study  of  method.  Subdivided  mo- 
tions result.  These  are  again  timed,  and  so  the 
process  proceeds  until  the  further  possible  saving 


36  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

will  no  longer  warrant  further  study,  or  the  avail- 
able appropriation  of  time  or  money  is  exhausted. 
The  most  efficient  motions,  as  determined  by  the 
tests  of  motion-study  and  time-study  are  then  syn- 
thesised  into  a  method  of  least  waste. 

This  outline  of  the  steps  in  taking  motion-study 
and  time  study  is  necessarily  incomplete,  lack- 
ing, as  it  does,  discussion  of  the  selection  of  the 
observer,  the  observed  worker,  and  many  other 
elements  of  scientific  management. 
|  As  for  the  particular  device  by  which  the  meas- 
L^rements  are  made,  the  choice  depends  mainly  on 
the  equipment  available.  Standards  have  been 
improved  even  by  merely  timing  the  work  by 
counting,  where  no  timing  devices  were  at  hand. 
Excellent  work  had  been  done  with  stop  watches. 
But  we  advocate  the  use  of  micromotion-study  in 
all  work  demanding  precision.  Micromotion- 
"study  consists  of  recording  the  speed  simultan- 
eously with  a  two  or  three  dimensional  path  of 
motions  by  the  aid  of  cinematograph  pictures  of 
a  worker  at  work  and  a  specially  designed  clock 
that  shows  divisions  of  time  so  minute  as  to  indi- 
cate a  different  time  of  day  in  each  picture  in  the 
cinematograph  film.  Through  micromotion-study 


MICROMOTION  MEASUREMENTS  OF  TYPISTS 
PIG.  4 

Reaction  test  of  Miss  Anna  Gold,  who  afterward  became 
National  Amateur  Champion  Typist  by  winning  the  contest 
at  Chicago,  1916. 


FIG.  5 

Miss  Hortense  Stollnitz, —  who  afterward  became  Inter- 
national Amateur  Champion,  equalling  the  professional  rec- 
ord of  137  words  per  minute  net,  and  exceeding  all  previous 
records  with  147  words  per  minute  gross, —  changing  paper 
in  the  machine. 


FIG.  6 

Miss  Stollnitz'  finger  motions  while  writing  at  her  fastest 
speed.  These  pictures  were  taken  at  the  rate  of  115  ex- 
posures per  second,  and  can  be  studied  with  special  appar- 
atus as  continuous  motions  at  the  rate  of  eight  per  second. 


FIG.  4 


FIG.  5 


FIG.  6 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         37 

not  only  is  the  measurement  more  accurate  than 
it  could  possibly  be  through  any  other  method, 
but  also  the  records  are  so  complete,  permanent, 
and  accessible  that  they  may  be  studied  at  any 
time  and  place  by  any  one.  The  advantages  of 
this  in  standardising  work,  and  most  especially  in 
teaching  workers,  are  obvious. 

The  result  of  measurement,  as  outlined  above, 
is  standards  synthesised  from  measured  ultimate 
units  of  the  workers'  manual  motions. 

Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Director  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Department  of  Public  Works,  in  Bulletin 
5  of  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Teaching,  created  for  the  word  "  stand- 
ard "  a  definition  which  is  itself  "  standard  "  in 
the  scientific  management  sense.  He  said : 

A  standard  under  modem  scientific  management  is 
simply  a  carefully  thought-out  method  of  performing  a 
function,  or  carefully  drawn  specifications  covering  an 
implement  or  some  article  of  stores  or  of  product.     The  I 
idea  of  perfection  is  not  involved  in  standardisation,  l 
The  standard  method  of  doing  anything  is  simply  the    \ 
best  method  that  can  be  devised  at  the  time  the  standard   j 
is  drawn.     Standard  specifications  for  materials  simply  \ 
cover  all  the  points  of  possible  variation  which  it  is  pos-  i 
sible  to  cover  at  the  time  the  specifications  are  drawn.    » 


38  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

Improvements  in  standards  are  wanted  and  adopted 
whenever  and  wherever  they  are  found.  There  is  abso- 
lutely nothing  in  standardisation  to  preclude  innovation. 
But  to  protect  standards  from  changes  which  are  not  in 
the  direction  of  improvement,  certain  safeguards  are 
erected.  These  safeguards  protect  standards  from 
change  for  the  sake  of  change.  All  that  is  demanded 
under  modern  scientific  management  is  that  a  proposed 
change  in  a  standard  must  be  scrutinised  as  carefully 
as  the  standard  was  scrutinised  prior  to  its  adoption, 
and  further  that  this  work  be  done  by  experts  as  com- 
petent to  do  it  as  were  those  who  originally  framed  the 
standard.  Standards  adopted  and  protected  in  this  way 
produce  the  best  that  is  known  at  any  one  time.  Stand- 
ardisation practised  in  this  way  is  a  constant  invitation 
to  experimentation  and  improvement. 

"""This  experimentation  and  improvement  are 
done  by  time  and  motion  study  before  the  stand- 
ards  are  made.  Thus  the  resulting  standard  is  in 
so  far  perfected  that  only  the  invention  of  a  new 

*£     device  will  make  a  change  in  the  standard  neces- 
sary.     The  fact  that  such  devices  are  often  the  re- 

**  suit  of  the  motion  study  also  assists  in  making 
the  standards  that  are  incorporated  from  the 
completed  study  more  permanent. 

As  was  well  shown  by  Mr.  John  G.  Aldrich,  in 
a  paper  read  before  the  American  Society  of 


UNITS,  METHODS  AND  DEVICES         39 

Mechanical  Engineers,  in  December,  1912,  the 
waste  motions  eliminated  by  such  measured 
standardising  can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
This  has  been  demonstrated  in  many  lines  of  ac- 
tivity. The  standard  toolroom,  the  standard  as- 
sembly packet  and  bench  for  assembling,  the 
standard  desk  in  the  planning  department  — 
these  are  but  illustrations  of  the  application  of 
this  principle.  And  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
illustrations  be  drawn  from  the  field  of  shopwork. 
It  has  been  applied  to  many  of  the  outdoor  trades^ 
We  are  now  co-operating  with  famous  surgeons 
in  the  study  of  the  elementary  motions  used  in 
surgery,  and  we  are  investigating  the  muscular 
activity  that  underlies  the  "  singing  tone  "  of  the 
skilled  musician,  to  mention  two  recent  invasions 
of  the  fields  of  science  and  art. 

There  will  be  those  who  will  say  that  no  such 
theory,  methods,  or  devices  can  ever  supplant  the 
need  and  usefulness  of  the  first-class  mechanic  or 
the  genius  in  the  trades,  arts,  and  professions. 
With  this  we  humbly  agree.  But  even  two  gen- 
iuses in  the  same  work  may  differ  greatly  in  their 
methods  as  a  whole ;  and  isolating  and  examining 


40  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  ultimate  units  of  their  work  may  show  that 
motions  made  by  one  of  the  geniuses  may  be  found 
absent,  and  unnecessary,  in  the  work  of  the  other. 
A  synthesis  of  the  best  of  the  units  of  methods  of 
each  would  present  a  method  better  than  any  ar- 
rived at  by  the  spontaneity  of  any  one  genius,  no 
matter  how  great.  Surely  the  presentation  of 
the  best  method,  however  discovered,  must  be  of 
the  greatest  value  to  all  below  the  grade  of 
best. 

Meantime,  all  workers  are  sharing  in  the  sav- 
ings made  possible  by  the  elimination  of  waste. 
They  are  being  trained  in  habits  of  least  waste- 
ful motions,  and  are  becoming  more  efficient  both 
in  their  working  and  in  their  non-working  hours. 
They  learn  to  "  think  in  elementary  motions,"  and 
to  submit  their  activities  in  all  lines  to  the  tests 
of  motion  and  time  study. 

The  great  need  now  is  for  more  efficient  co-op- 
eration, that  work  done  by  one  investigator  may 
not  be  needlessly  repeated  by  another.  Through 
such  co-operation  only  can  come  the  savings  that 
will  allow  of  refinements  of  the  units,  methods, 
and  devices  of  measurement,  and  that  will  result 
in  progress  that  is  definite,  constant,  and  lasting. 


MOTION  STUDY  AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL 
OPPORTUNITY  * 

There  is  no  waste  of  any  kind  in  the  world  that 
equals  the  waste  from  needless,  ill-directed,  and 
ineffective  motions,  and  their  resulting  unneces- 
sary fatigue.  Because  this  is  true,  there  is  no  in- 
dustrial opportunity  that  offers  a  richer  return 
than  the  elimination  of  needless  motions,  and  the 
transformation  of  ill-directed  and  ineffective  mo- 
tions into  efficient  activity. 

This  country  has  been  so  rich  in  human  and 
material  resources,  that  it  is  only  recently  that 
the  importance  of  waste  elimination  has  come  to 
be  realised.  The  material  element  received  the 
first  consideration,  and  in  the  comparatively  few 
years  during  which  the  subject  has  received  at- 
tention, an  enormous  amount  has  been  done  to 
conserve  natural  resources,  to  economise  in  the 
use  of  materials,  and  to  utilise  the  by-products  of 
industrial  processes. 

The  human  element  is  now  receiving  long-de- 
layed attention.  Vocational  training,  vocational 

i  Reprinted  from  "  The  Annals  "  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science. 

41 


42  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

guidance,  better  placement,  and  better  working 
conditions  have  become  subjects  for  serious  con- 
sideration in  all  parts  of  this  country  and  of 
the  worlds/Savings  in  human  energy  are  result- 
ing Trom  these  investigations,  but  the  greatest 
saving  in  time,  in  money,  and  in  energy  will  re- 
sult when  the  motions  of  every  individual,  no 
matter  what  his  work  may  be,  have  been  studied 
and  standardised. 

w — Strch  studies  have  already  been  made  in  many 
trades,  and  have  resulted  in  actual  savings  that 
prove  that  the  results  of  the  practice  confirm  the 
theory.  In  laying  brick,  the  motions  used  in  lay- 
ing a  single  brick  were  reduced  from  eighteen  to 
five, —  with  an  increase  in  output  of  from  one 
hundred  and  twenty  brick  an  hour  to  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  an  hour  and  with  a  reduction  in  the 
resulting  fatigue.  In  folding  cotton  cloth, 
twenty  to  thirty  motions  were  reduced  to  ten  or 
twelve,  with  the  result  that  instead  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dozen  pieces  of  cloth,  four  hundred 
dozen  were  folded,  with  no  added  fatigue.  The 
motions  of  a  girl  putting  paper  on  boxes  of  shoe 
polish  were  studied.  Her  methods  were  changed 
only  slightly,  and  where  she  had  been  doing 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY      43 

twenty-four  boxes  in  forty  seconds,  she  did 
twenty-four  in  twenty  seconds,  with  less  effort. 
Similar  studies  hare  cut  down  the  motions  not 
only  of  men  and  women  in  other  trades  but  also 
of  surgeons,  of  nurses,  of  office  workers ;  in  fact, 
of  workers  in  every  type  of  work  studied. 

Motion  study  consists  of  dividing  work  into  the 
most  fundamental  elements  possible;  studying 
these  elements  separately  and  in  relation  to  one 
another;  and  from  these  studied  elements,  when 
timed,  building  methods  of  least  waste. 

To  cite  a  specific  example :  The  assembly  of  a 
machine  is  the  piece  of  work  under  considera- 
tion. The  existing  method  of  assembling  the  ma- 
chine is  recorded  in  the  minutest  detail.  Each 
element  of  the  assembly  is  then  tested, —  the 
method  used  in  handling  the  element  being  com- 
pared with  other  possible  methods.  In  this  way, 
the  most  efficient  elements  of  an  assembly  are  de- 
termined ;  and  these  elements  are  combined  into  a 
method  of  assembly  that,  because  it  is  the  result 
of  actual  measurement,  is  worthy  to  become  a 
standard.  Such  an  assembly  is  that  of  the 
braider,  manufactured  by  the  New  England  Butt 
Company.  As  a  result  of  motion  studies  made 


44  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

upon  this,  where  eighteen  braiders  had  been  as- 
sembled by  one  man  in  a  day,  it  now  becomes  pos- 
sible to  assemble  sixty-six  braiders  per  man  per 
day,  with  no  increase  in  fatigue. 

The  accurate  measurement  involved  in  getting 
results  like  this  includes  three  elements.  We 
must  determine,  first,  the  units  to  be  measured ; 
second,  the  methods  to  be  used;  and,  third,  the 

devices  to  be  used. 

••i  «•* 

The  unit  of  measurement  must  be  one  that  of 
itself  will  reduce  cost,  and  should  be  as  small 
as  the  time  and  money  that  can  be  devoted  to 
the  investigation  warrants.  The  smaller  the 
unit,  the  more  intensive  the  study  required. 

The  methods  and  devices  to  be  used  are  also 
determined  largely  by  the  question  of  cost.  Nat- 
urally, those  methods  and  devices  are  preferable 
which  provide  least  possibility  of  errors  of  ob- 
servation. Such  errors  have  been  classified  as  of 
two  kinds:  First,  errors  due  to  instruments; 
and,  second,  errors  due  to  the  personal  bias  of  the 
observer.  The  newer  methods  of  making  motion 
studies  and  time  studies  by  the  use  of  the  micro- 
motion  method  and  the  chronocyclegraph  method 
exclude  such  errors.  Fortunately,  through  an 


FIG.  7 

Automatic  Micromotion  Study  with  vertical  penetrating 
screen  in  the  plane  of  the  motions. 


FIG.  8 

Multiple  use  of  film  reducing  cost  of  time  and  motion 
study  while  retaining  accuracy  and  permanence  of  the  de- 
tailed record. 


FIG.  9 

Autoteletime  study  for  recording  motions  at  a  great  dis- 
tance and  the  position  of  the  finger  of  the  michronometer  less 
than  thirty  feet  away. 


FIG.  7 


FIG.  8 


FIG.  9 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY      45 

improvement  and  cheapening  of  the  devices,  it  is 
now  possible  to  make  accurate  records  of  mo- 
tions, even  when  no  great  outlay  for  the  study  can 
be  afforded. 

The  micro-motion  method  of  making  motion 
studies  consists  of  recording  motions  by  means  of 
a  motion  picture  camera,  a  clock  that  will  record 
different  times  of  day  in  each  picture  of  a  mo- 
tion picture  film,  a  cross-sectioned  background, 
and  other  devices  for  assisting  in  measuring  the 
relative  efficiency  and  wastefulness  of  motions. 

»•_-  — 

Suppose  the  process  of  assembly  before  cited 
is  being  micro-motion  studied :  The  assembler  is 
placed  before  the  cross-sectioned  background ;  the 
micro-motion  clock  is  placed  where  it  will  record 
in  the  picture,  yet  not  disturb  the  worker;  near 
it  is  another  clock  which  serves  as  a  check  on  the 
accuracy  of  the  special  clock.  The  assembler, 
who  has  been  rated  a  skilled  worker  under  the 
old  method,  naturally  does  the  best  work  possi- 
ble, since  a  permanent  record  is  being  made  of 
his  performance.  The  observer  operates  the  mo- 
tion picture  camera,  which,  however,  allows  him 
freedom  to  observe  the  assembly  process  continu- 
ally, and  to  note  possibilities  for  improvement. 


46  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

From  the  data  on  the  film  and  the  observations 
of  the  observer,  can  be  formulated  an  improved 
method.  The  standard  method  is  seldom  derived 
from  the  work  of  one  observed  worker  only.  It 
has  been  noted  that  the  ideal  method  seldom  lies 
in  the  consecutive  acts  of  any  one  individual; 
therefore,  many  workers  are  observed  before  the 
final  standard  is  deduced. 

These  micro-motion  records  give  all  the  data 
required  except  the  continuous  path  of  a  cycle  of 
motions.  This  lack  is  supplied  by  the  chronocy- 
clegraph  method.  The  chronocyclegraph  method 
of  making  motion  study  consists  of  fastening  tiny 
electric-light  bulbs  to  the  fingers  of  the  operator, 
or  to  any  part  of  the  operator  or  of  the  material 
whose  motion  path  it  is  desired  to  study.  If  it 
is  merely  the  orbit  of  the  motion  that  is  to  be 
observed,  a  photograph  is  made  of  the  moving 
part  to  which  the  light  is  attached,  during  the 
time  that  this  part  is  performing  the  operation. 
If  the  direction,  relative  time,  and  relative  speed 
are  to  be  noted,  the  path  of  light,  through  con- 
trolled interruption  of  the  circuit,  is  made  to 
consist  of  dots  or  dashes,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two,  with  single  pointed  ends, —  the  point  show- 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY      47 

ing  the  direction.  Through  the  micro-motion 
studies  and  the  chronocyclegraph  studies,  then, 
the  expert  formulates  the  standard  method.  It 
is  important  to  note  the  changes  which  the  instal- 
lation of  a  standard  method  implies.  This 
method  consists  of  improved  motions,  and  im- 
plies, first,  changes  in  surroundings,  equipment, 
and  tools;  and,  second,  changes  in  the  type  of 
worker  assigned  to  do  the  work. 

During  the  motion  study  of  the  assembly,  it 
was  found  that  more  efficient  motions  could  be 
made  if  the  machine  assembled  was  placed  on  a 
special  table,  which  could  be  turned  on  its  side 
and  transformed  into  a  lower  table,  after  the  base 
group  of  the  machine  had  been  assembled.  It 
was  also  found  that  speed  was  gained  and  fatigue 
eliminated,  when  the  parts  of  the  machine  were 
arranged  in  an  obvious  sequence  on  a  vertical 
packet.1  These  devices  wrere  immediately  sup- 
plied at  little  cost  and  with  great  result  in  sav- 
ing. Through  these  devices,  and  the  other 
changes  made  by  motion  study,  it  became  possible 
to  accomplish  nearly  three  and  one-half  times 

i  For  description  of  the  original  motion  study  packet  see 
"  Bricklaying  System,"  Chap.  VIII. 


48  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

as  much  assembly  as  had  previously  been  done. 
Such  changes  are  typical,  and  it  is  typical  that 
the  inventions  result  from  the  motion  study. 

As  for  the  type  of  individual  suited  to  the  work, 
—  the  simplification  of  the  process  and  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  motions  to  habits  often  make  it  possi- 
>le  to  utilise  workers  with  less  initiative  and 
V  skill,  assigning  the  more  skilled  workers  to  a 
)  higher  type  of  work.    In  the  case  cited  of  the  as- 
vHsembly,  the  original  assemblers  were  retained  and 
.  enabled  to  do  much  more  work  with  less  fatigue. 
It  has  also  been  possible  to  train  inexperienced 
men  to  assemble  in  much  less  time  and  with  less 
effort  than  was  formerly  the  case. 

The  result  of  the  introduction  of  motion  stand- 
ards is  an  increase  in  output  and  wages,  and  an 
accompanying  decrease  in  cost  and  fatigue.     The 
decreased  cost  and  the  increased  wages  both  de- 
pend, of  course,  on  the  increased  output.     The 
output  is  increased,  because  the  motions  used  to 
make  any  one  unit  of  the  output  are  less  in  num- 
ber and  more  efficient  in  results.     The  average 
Tcost  of  output  increase  is  sufficient  not  only  to 
/  provide  for  the  higher  wages  necessary  to  induce 
I   the  workers  to  do  the  work  in  the  manner  pre- 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY      4,9 

scribed,  and  to  enjoy  doing  it,  but,  also,  to  allow 
of  at  least  enough  profit  to  the  management  to 
cover  the  cost  of  the  investigations  that  resulted 
in  the  standard. 

The  quality  of  the  output  is  maintained 
through  a  new  type  of  inspection,  which  con- 
siders not  only  the  output  itself,  but  the  ele- 
ments, —  material  and  human,  —  which  result  in 
that  output.  Nothing  is  a  higher  guarantee  of 
quality  than  insistence  on  a  standard  method. 

Along  with  the  laboratory  investigations  from 
which  motion  study  standards  are  derived,  goes 
a  general  campaignto  arouse  every  individual  in 

terms  of 


motions.  Such  simple  office  equipment  as  pen- 
cil holders  are  motion  studied,  and  every  member 
of  the  organisation  is  encouraged  to  observe  and 
record  his  own  motions  in  performing  the  most 
elementary  of  operations.  Motion  study  may  be 
carried  on  with  no  devices,  and  every  one  is  ex- 
pected to  know  how  to  make  at  least  the 
preliminary  investigations.  In  this  way,  the 
spirit  of  motion  economy  grows  throughout 
the  entire  plant,  with  a  consequent  elimination 
of  waste  motions  and  a  growing  interest  in 


50  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  more  scientific  methods  of  motion  study. 

What,  now,  are  the  results  of  this  motion  study 
upon  the  individual  men  doing  the  work,  upon  the 
factory  group,  upon  the  industrial  world,  and 
upon  society  at  large?  The  men  themselves  be- 
come more  efficient.  They  become  specialists, — 
skilled  workers.  They  learn  the  motion-study 
method  of  attack,  and  are  thus  more  fit  to  under- 
take any  type  of  work.  They  learn  to  think  in 
elementary  motions,  and  to  eliminate  waste  in 
every  activity  of  their  lives. 

The  increased  output  of  each  individual  worker 
does  not  result  in  the  employment  of  less  men  in 
the  plant.  The  transference  of  skill  that  main- 
tenance of  standards  implies,  means  that  many 
teachers  are  needed.  These  come,  naturally, 
from  the  ranks  of  the  skilled  workers.  The  plan- 
ning that  is  necessary  is  also  usually  done  by 
workers  promoted  to  the  planning  department. 
At  present,  at  least,  the  demand  for  men  trained 
under  motion  study  is  far  larger  than  the  supply ; 
it  will  be  for  years  to  come, —  certainly  until  the 
increased  output  results  in  the  increased  demand 
which  is  its  inevitable  consequence. 

The  industrial  situation  is  bettered  through  the 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY       51 

general  spread  of  the  ideas  of  waste  elimination, 
and  through  the  practical  application  of  its  prin- 
ciples in  whatever  relations  those  trained  under 
it  may  enter.  How  far  this  influence  upon  the  in- 
dustries will  extend  will  depend  entirely  upon  the 
amount  of  work  done  by  individuals,  and  upon 
their  co-operation.  At  present,  many  individuals 
are  engaged  in,  or  are  at  least  interested  in,  mo- 
tion study  and  waste  elimination.  But  there  is 
not  the  proper  degree  of  co-operation.  Such  co- 
operation can  only  come  as  motion  study  becomes 
a  matter  of  interest  to  society  at  large.  The 
whole  social  group  is  already  being  affected  by 
the  results  of  motion  study.  One  typical  result 
is  the  gradual  filling  in  of  the  gap  between  the 
school  and  the  plant.  An  intensive  study  of  mo- 
tions is  proving  that  there  are  far  greater  like- 
nesses in  trades,  and  even  professions,  on  the 
mechanical  side,  than  we  have  ever  believed  possi- 
ble. The  demand  of  the  industrial  world  will  be 
more  and  more  for  young  workers  trained  to  be 
finger-wise,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  funda- 
mentals of  motion  economy,  and  with  an  under- 
standing of  the  relationship  between  efficient  mo- 
tions and  success  in  the  industries. 


52  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

The  industrial  world  is  becoming  more  and 
more  definite  in  its  requirements  for  industrial 
training.  This  is  making  it  possible  for  all  types 
of  schools  to  give  their  pupils  a  training  which 
enables  them  to  fit  into  working  conditions  with- 
out the  customary,  preliminary  jolt,  and  months 
and  years  of  adjustment.  The  training  required 
is  so  general,  yet  so  definite,  that  it  may  well 
prove  an  important  part  of  the  training  of  every 
young  man  or  woman,  whether  or  not  he  goes  ulti- 
mately into  the  industries.  This  training  is 
being  given  not  only  in  the  technical  schools  and 
in  the  trade  schools  but  also  to  some  extent,  at 
least,  in  the  ordinary  public  schools.  It  consists 
of  making  every  pupil,  to  as  great  an  extent  as 
possible,  "finger-wise";  that  is,  of  training  his 
muscles  so  that  they  respond  easily  and  quickly 
to  demands  for  skilled  work.  With  this  training 
goes  an  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  such 
"finger  training,"  and  of  its  relation  to  motion 
economy.  The  pupils  are  also  given  an  appreci- 
ation of  the  problems  of  industry,  and  of  the 
relation  of  these  problems  to  social  development. 
An  effect  of  motion  study  in  the  industries  upon 
society  is  its  influence  toward  spreading  the  be- 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY       53 

lief  that  real  efficiency  considers  and  conserves 
the  human  element ; 1  that  it  makes  fatigue  study 
imperative ;  and  that  its  fundamental  idea  is  con- 
servation, not  exploitation. 

The  great  need  to-day,  as  in  all  fields  where 
progress  is  to  be  made,  is  education.  The  com- 
munity as  a  whole  must  be  educated  as  to  the 
importance  of  motion  study,  and  as  to  the  possi- 
bility of  every  man  and  woman  making  such  mo- 
tion study  to  some  extent  for  himself.  The  tech- 
nical press  and  the  press  generally  are  doing 
much  to  spread  these  ideas.  Much  is  also  being 
done  by  the  colleges  that  are  studying  and  teach- 
ing the  subject.  Such  wide-spread  education  is 
absolutely  necessary  before  we  can  hope  for  the 
reclassification  and  standardisation  of  the  exist- 
ing trades,  which  is  a  necessary  future  step. 
The  trades  must  be  reclassified,  according  to  the 
amount  of  skill  involved  in  the  motions  used; 
and  must  then  be  standardised  in  order  that  the 
necessary  training  for  entering  them  and  suc- 
ceeding in  them  can  be  given.  As  an  example  of 
reclassifying  a  trade,  we  would  recommend,  for 
example,  for  brick  work,  five  classes : 

i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  p.  10,  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York. 


54  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

Class  A. — Ornamental  and  exterior  face  brick 
and  moulded  terra  cotta. 

Class  B. — Interior  face  tiers  that  do  not  show 
at  completion,  where  strong,  plumb,  and  straight 
work  only  is  neede'd. 

Class  C. — Filling  tiers  where  strength  only  is 
needed. 

Class  D. — Putting  fountain  trowels  and  brick 
packs  on  the  wall  near  the  place,  and  in  the  man- 
ner where  the  other  three  classes  can  reach  them 
with  greatest  economy  of  motion. 

Class  E. — Pack  loaders,  brick  cullers,  and 
stage  builders. 

The  pay  of  the  A  and  B  classes  should  be  con- 
siderably higher  than  is  customary  for  bricklay- 
ers. The  pay  of  the  C,  D,  and  E  classes  should 
be  lower  than  is  customary  for  bricklayers,  but 
much  higher  than  the  pay  of  labourers.  This 
classification  will  raise  the  pay  of  all  five  classes 
higher  than  they  could  ever  obtain  in  the  classes 
that  they  would  ordinarily  work  in  under  the 
present  system,  yet  the  resulting  cost  of  the  la- 
bour on  brickwork  would  be  much  less,  and  each 
class  would  be  raised  in  its  standing  and  edu- 
cated for  better  work  and  higher  wages. 


AS  AN  INDUSTRIAL  OPPORTUNITY      55 

In  the  case  of  brickwork  this  new  classification 
is  a  crying  necessity,  as  the  cost  of  brickwork 
must  be  reduced  to  a  point  where  it  can  compete 
with  concrete.  Improvements  in  making,  meth- 
ods of  mixing,  transporting,  and  densifying  con- 
crete in  the  metal  moulds  of  to-day  have  put  the 
entire  brickwork  proposition  where  it  can  be  used 
for  looks  only,  because  for  strength,  impervious- 
ness,  quickness  of  construction,  lack  of  union 
labour  troubles,  and  low  cost,  brickwork  can- 
not compete  with  concrete  under  present  condi- 
tions. 

Having  subclassified  the  trades,  the  second 
step  is  to  standardise  them. 

And  both  classification  and  standardisation  de- 
mand motion  study. 

The  other  great  need,  besides  education,  is, 
then,  a  national  bureau  of  standards,  where  work 
done  in  motion  study  can  be  collected,  classified, 
and  put  into  such  form  that  it  will  be  available 
to  every  one.  There  is  an  enormous  waste,  at 
present,  from  repeating  investigations  along  the 
same  lines  of  work.  There  is  not  only  the  waste 
from  the  actual  repetition  involved,  but  also  the 
fact  that  the  time  utilised  in  doing  work  already 


56  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

done  could,  instead,  be  devoted  to  original  work, 
that  is  sadly  needed. 

!   It  is  the  work  of  the  United  States  Government 
to  establish  such  a  Bureau  of  Standardisation  of 
Mechanical   Trades.     The   standards   there   de- 
rived and  collected  would  be  public  property,  and 
original  investigators  could  invent  from  these 
standards  upwards.    Most  important  of  all,  per- 
haps, these  standards  would  furnish  the  ideal 
means  for  teaching  or  transferring  skill  to  the 
young  workers  who  desire  to  enter  a  trade. 
X?  The   reclassification   of   the  trades   and   the 
/   Bureau  of  Standardisation  are,  then,  the  two 
/     great  needs  for  motion  study  development.     But 
V     these  will  come  only  when  the  individuals  inter- 
ested apply  motion  study  to  their  own  work,  and 
show  willingness  to  co-operate  with  others. 

The  industrial  opportunity  afforded  by  motion 
study  is  not,  then,  some  great  future  opportunity 
of  which  we  dream,  or  some  remote  and  inaccessi- 
ble opportunity  for  which  we  must  collectively 
strive.  It  is  an  opportunity  ready,  here  and  now, 
to  be  grasped  by  each  one  of  us  individually, — 
and  it  is  the  greatest  industrial  opportunity  that 
this  century  affords. 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY  IN- 
STKUMENTS  OF  PEECISION  l 

The  greatest  waste  in  the  world  comes  from 
needless,  ill-directed,  and  ineffective  motions. 
These  motions  are  unnecessary  and  preventable. 
Their  existence  in  the  past  was  excusable,  be- 
cause there  was  no  knowledge  of  how  to  dispense 
with  them.  That  excuse  no  longer  obtains.  The 
methods  and  devices  of  waste  elimination  are 
known  and  are  being  constantly  used.  But  the 
knowledge  of  how  to  make  these  great  world- 
wide economies  is  being  disseminated  at  an  as- 
tonishingly slow  pace. 

This  paper  is  for  the  purpose  of  disseminating 
such  knowledge,  particularly  as  to  the  devices 
that  are  used  for  making  the  measurements  that 
enable  us  to  eliminate  waste. 

In  the  science  of  management,  as  in  all  other 
sciences,  progress  that  is  to  be  definite  and  last- 
ing depends  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  measure- 

i  Presented  at  the  International  Engineering  Congress. 
57 


58  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

ments  that  are  made.     There  are  three  elements 
to  every  measurement : 

1.  The  unit  measured. 

2.  The  method  of  measurement. 

3.  The  device  by  which  the  measurement  is 
made. 

It  is  here  our  aim  to  show  the  development  of 
the  devices  of  measurement,  that  is,  of  instru- 
ments of  precision  that  apply  to  one  branch  of 
the  new  type  of  management,  namely,  to  motion 
study  and  its  related  time  study. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  new  type  of  man- 
agement that  has  been  variously  called  "  Scien- 
tific Management,"  or  "Measured  Functional 
Management,"  is  that  it  is  based  upon  the  results 
of  accurate  measurement.  This  fundamental 
idea  has  been  derived  as  follows :  Each  opera- 
tion to  be  studied  is  analysed  into  the  most  ele- 
mentary units  possible.  These  units  are  ac- 
curately measured,  and,  as  the  results  of  the 
measurement,  the  efficient  units  only  are  com- 
bined into  a  new  method  of  performing  the  work 
that  is  worthy  to  become  a  standard. 
(^  Dr.  Taylor,  the  great  pioneer  in  time  study, 
and  his  co-worker,  Mr.  S.  E.  Thompson,  have 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY       59 

clearly  defined  their  conception  of  time  study  as 
"  the  process  of  analysing  an  operation  into  its 
elementary  operations,  and  observing  the  time  re- 
quired to  perform  them."  Time  study  has  to  do, 
then,  fundamentally,  with  the  measurement  of 
units  of  time. 

Now  motion  study  has  to  do  with  the  selection, 
invention,  and  substitution  of  the  motions  and 
their  variables  that  are  to  be  measured.  J  Both 
accurate  time  study  and  motion  study  require  in- 
struments of  precision  that  will  record  mechan- 
ically, with  the  least  possible  interference  from 
the  human  element,  in  permanent  torm,  exactly 
what  motions  and  results  occur.  For  permanent 
use  the  records  must  be  so  definite,  distinct,  and 
simple  that  they  may  be  easily  and  immediately 
used,  and  lose  none  of  their  value  or  helpfulness 
when  old,  forgotten,  or  not  personally  expe- 
rienced by  their  user. 

There  have  undoubtedly  been  some  vague  mo- 
tion studies  and  guess-work  times  studies  made  as 
far  back  as  historical  records  are  available,  par- 
ticularly in  the  arts  of  warfare.  The  importance 
of  rhythm,  for  example,  which  is  one  of  the  fun- 
damentals in  motion  study,  was  recognised  in  the 


60  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  pictorial  records  which 
perpetuate  the  methods  of  their  best  managers,  as 
examination  of  photographs  of  such  records  in 
our  possession  will  plainly  show.  Babbage, 
Coulomb,  Adam  Smith, —  all  recognised  the  im- 
portance of  the  time  element  in  industrial  opera- 
tions, for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  methods  of 
greatest  output,  but  not  methods  of  least  waste. 
It  was  not,  however,  until  Dr.  Taylor  suggested 
timing  the  work  periods  separately  from  the  rest 
periods  that^the  managers  tried  to  find  accurate 
time-measuring  devices. 

It  is  not  always  recognised  that  some  prelim- 
inary motion  study  and  time  study  can  be  done 
without  the  aid  of  any  accurate  devices.  It  is 
even  less  often  recognised  that  such  work,  when 
most  successful,  is  usually  done  by  one  thor- 
oughly conversant  with,  and  skilled  in,  the  use  of 
the  most  accurate  devices.  In  other  words,  it  is 
usually  advisable  in  studying  an  operation  to 
make  all  possible  improvements  in  the  motions 
used  and  to  comply  broadly  with  the  laws  of  mo- 
tion study  before  recording  the  operation,  except 
for  the  preliminary  record  that  serves  to  show 
the  state  of  the  art  from  which  the  investigation 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY       61 

started.  However,  in  order  to  make  a  great  and 
lasting  success  of  this  work,  one  must  have 
studied  motions  and  measured  them  until  his  eye 
can  follow  paths  of  motions  and  judge  lengths 
of  motions,  and  his  timing  sense,  aided  by  silent 
rhythmic  counting,  can  estimate  times  of  motion 
with  surprising  accuracy.  Sight,  hearing,  touch,  . 
and  kinesthetic  sensations  must  all  be  keenly  de- 
veloped. With  this  training  and  equipment,  a 
motion-  and  time-study  expert  can  obtain  prelim- 
inary results  without  devices,  that,  to  the  un- 
trained or  the  uninformed,  seem  little  short  of 
astounding.  When  the  operation  has  received  its 
preliminary  revision  and  is  ready  for  the  accu- 
rate measurements  that  lead  to  actual  standard- 
isation and  the  teaching  that  follows,  devices  of 
precise  measurement  become  imperative  for  meth- 
ods of  least  waste  that  will  stand  the  test  of  time. 
Early  workers  in  time  study  made  use  of  such 
well-known  devices  as  the  clock,  the  watch,  the 
stop-watch,  and  various  types  of  stop-watches  at- 
tached to  a  specially  constructed  board  or  imita- 
tion book.  Through  the  use  of  these  it  became 
possible  to  record  short  intervals  of  time,  subject, 
of  course,  always  to  the  personal  error.  The  ob- 


62  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

jection  to  the  use  of  these  methods  and  devices  is 
their  variation  from  accuracy,  due  to  the  human 
element.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  use  of  the 
stop-watch,  where  the  reaction  time  of  the  ob- 
server is  an  element  constantly  affecting  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  records.  But  the  greatest  loss  and 
defect  of  personally  observed  and  recorded  times 
is  that  they  do  not  show  the  attending  conditions 
of  the  varying  surroundings,  equipment  and  tools 
that  cause  the  differences  in  the  time  records,  and 
give  no  clue  to  causes  of  shortest  or  quickest 
times. 

As  for  motion  study,  Marey,  with  no  thought 
of  motion  study  in  our  present  use  of  the  term 
in  his  mind,  developed,  as  one  line  of  his  multi- 
tudinous activities,  a  method  of  recording  paths 
of  motions,  but  never  succeeded  in  his  effort  to 
record  direction  of  motions  photographically. 

Being  unable  to  find  any  devices  anywhere  such 
as  the  work  of  our  motion  study  required,  the 
problem  that  presented  itself,  then,  to  us  who 
needed  and  desired  instruments  of  precision,  ap- 
plicable to  our  motion  study  and  to  our  time 
study,  was  to  invent,  design  and  construct  devices 
that  would  overcome  lacks  in  the  early  and  ex- 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY   63 

isting  methods.  It  was  necessary  to  dispense 
with  the  human  element  and  its  attending  errors 
and  limitations.  We  needed  devices  to  record 
the  direction  as  well  as  the  path  or  orbits  of  mo- 
tions, and  to  reduce  the  cost  of  obtaining  all  time 
study  and  motion  study  data.  These  were 
needed  not  only  from  the  scientific  standpoint, 
but  also  from  the  standpoint  of  obtaining  full  co- 
operation of  the  mechanics  and  other  workers. 
Many  of  these  had,  as  a  class,  become  suspicious 
of  time  study  taken  secretly  by  those  who,  they 
thought,  did  not  know  enough  about  the  practical 
features  of  the  trade  to  take  the  time  study  prop- 
erly, and  could  not  prove  that  the  times  were 
right  after  putting  them  on  paper.  Here  was  ab- 
solute pioneer  work  to  be  done  in  inventing 
devices  that  would  record  times,  paths,  and  direc- 
tions of  motions  simultaneously.  With  the  older 
time  study  devices  there  was  no  way  of  recording 
accurately  either  the  unit  timed  or  the  controll- 
ing surrounding  conditions.  The  "  elementary 
units  "  were  groups  of  motions.  They  were  ele- 
mentary only  with  relation  to  the  stop-watch, 
with  which  it  is  impossible  to  record  accurately 
the  time  of  an  element  of  a  motion,  since  it  takes 


64  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

two  decisions  and  two  motions  to  press  the  stop- 
watch. These  "  groups  of  motions  "  were  some- 
times described  at  greater  or  less  length,  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  description  depending  upon  the 
power  of  observation  of  the  recorder  and  the  de- 
tail with  which  the  time  at  his  disposal,  his  will- 
ingness and  his  ability  to  observe,  permitted  him 
to  set  down  his  observations. 

Through  our  earliest  work  in  making  progress 
records  we  recognised  the  necessity  of  recording 
time  and  conditions  accurately  and  simultan- 
eously, the  records  being  made  by  dated  photo- 
graphs. This  method  was  particularly  applic- 
able in  construction  work,1  where  progress  pic- 
tures taken  at  frequent  intervals  present  accu- 
rate records  of  the  surroundings,  equipment  and 
tools  that  affect  records  of  output  of  various 
stages  of  development. 

In  making  more  intensive  studies  of  certain 
trades,  such  as  shovelling,  concrete  work,  and 
bricklaying,  we  found  it  advantageous  to  photo- 
graph the  various  positions  in  which  the  hands, 
arms,  feet,  and  other  parts  of  the  body  involved 

i  See  "  Concrete  System,"   Engineering  News  Publishing 
Co.,  New  York. 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY       65 

in  the  operations  were  placed,  and  to  record  the 
time  taken  in  moving  from  one  position  to  an- 
other by  one  method,  as  related  to  the  time  taken 
in  moving  from  the  same  first  to  the  same  second 
position  by  another  method.1  Our  intensive 
study  of  bricklaying,  which  grew  out  of  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  unique  history,  present  practice 
and  doubtful  future  of  this  trade,  led  us  to  a 
more  intensive  study  of  the  problems  of  motion^ 
and  time  study  in  general.2  Bricklaying  will  al- 
ways be  the  most  interesting  of  all  examples  to  ' 
us,  for  one  reason,  among  others,  that  it  was  the 
first  trade  to  use  the  principle  of  duplicate,  inter-  /  y 
changeable  parts  system  of  construction ;  had  had 
six  thousand  known  years  of  practice  in  all  coun- 
tries; and  was,  therefore,  a  comparatively  fin- 
ished art,  but  not  a  science,  when  we  undertook 
to  change  it  by  means  of  motion  study. 

Fortunately,  we  are  now  able  to  use  the  motion 
picture  camera  with  our  speed  clock,  and  other 
accessories,  as  a  device  for  recording  elements  of 
motion  and  their  corresponding  times,  simultane- 

1  See  "  Motion  Study,"  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  New  York 
City. 

2  See  "Bricklaying  System,"  Myron  C.  Clark  Publishing 
Co.,  Chicago. 


66  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

ously.  Our  latest  microchronometer  records  in- 
tervals of  time  down  to  any  degree  of  accuracy 
required.  We  have  made,  and  used,  in  our  work 
of  motion  study  investigations  of  hospital  prac- 
tice and  surgery,  one  that  records  times  to  the 
millionth  of  an  hour.  This  is  designed  for  ex- 
tremely accurate  work,  but  can  be  adjusted  to 
intervals  of  any  length  desired,  as  proves  most 
economical  or  desirable  for  the  type  of  work  to  be 
investigated. 

Having  completed  our  microchronometer,  we 
proceeded  as  follows:  The  microchronometer 
was  placed  in  the  photographic  field  near  the 
operator  and  his  working  equipment,  and  against 
a  cross-sectioned  background  or  in  a  cross-sec- 
tioned field,  and  at  a  cross-sectioned  work  bench 
or  table.  The  operator  then  performed  the  op- 
eration according  to  the  prescribed  method,  while 
the  motion-picture  camera  recorded  the  various 
stages  of  the  operation  and  the  position  of  the 
hand  on  the  microchronometer  simultaneously. 
Thus,  on  the  motion  picture  film  we  obtain  inter- 
mittent records  of  the  paths,  the  lengths,  \he  di- 
rections, and  the  speeds  of  the  motions,  or  the 
times  accompanying  the  motions,  these  records 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY      67 

all  being  simultaneous ;  and  the  details  of  the  con- 
ditions of  the  surroundings  that  are  visible  to  the 
eye  are  recorded  without  the  failings  of  mem- 
ory. This  was  a  distinct  step  in  advance,  but  we 
realised  that  there  was  a  lack  in  the  records.  It 
was  difficult,  even  for  one  especially  trained  and 
experienced  to  visualise  the  exact  path  of  a  mo- 
tion, and  it  was  not  possible  to  measure  the 
length  with  precision  from  the  observations  of 
the  motion  picture  film  alone,  as  there  is  no  sum- 
mary or  recapitulation  of  all  the  motions  of  a 
cycle  or  operation  in  any  one  picture.  To  over- 
come this  lack  we  invented  the  cyclegraph  method 
of  recording  motions.  This  consists  of  attaching 
a  small  electric  light  to  the  hand  or  other  moving 
part  of  the  person  or  machine  under  observation. 
The  motion  is  recorded  on  an  ordinary  photo- 
graphic film  or  plate.  Upon  observing  our  very 
first  cyclegraph  records,  we  found  that  we  had 
attained  our  desire,  and  that  the  accurate  path 
taken  by  the  motion  stood  before  us  in  two  di- 
mensions. By  taking  the  photographic  record 
stereoscopically,  we  were  able  to  see  this  path  in 
three  dimensions,  and  to  obtain  what  we  have 
called  the  stereocyclegraph.  This  showed  us  the 


68  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

path  of  the  motion  in  all  three  dimensions ;  that 
is,  length,  breadth,  and  depth.  It  did  not,  how- 
ever, contain  the  time  element.  This  time  ele- 
ment is  of  great  importance  not  only  for  compara- 
tive or  "  relative  "  time,  but  also  for  exact  times. 
This  time  element  is  obtained  by  putting  an  in- 
terrupter in  the  light  circuit,  that  causes  the  light 
to  flash  at  an  even  rate  at  a  known  number  of 
times  per  second.  This  gives  a  line  of  time  spots 
in  the  picture  instead  of  a  continuous  cyclegraph 
light  line.  Counting  the  light  spots  tells  the  time 
consumed. 

The  next  step  was  to  show  the  direction  of  the 
motions.  To  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  find  the 
right  combination  of  volts  and  amperes  for  the 
light  circuit  and  the  thickness  of  filament  for  the 
lamp,  to  cause  quick  lighting  and  slow  extin- 
guishing of  the  lamp.  This  right  combination 
makes  the  light  spots  pointed  on  their  latest,  or 
forward,  ends.  .The  points,  thus,  like  the  usual 
symbol  of  arrow  heads,  show  the  direction.  The 
result  was,  then,  of  course,  finally,  stereochrono- 
cyclegraphs  showing  direction.  These  act  not 
only  as  accurate  records  of  the  motions  and  times, 
but  also  serve  as  admirable  teaching  devices. 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY      69 

Wire  models  of  cyclegraphs  and  chronocycle- 
graphs  of  the  paths  and  the  times  of  motions  are 
now  constructed  that  have  a  practical  educational 
value  besides  their  importance  as  scientific  rec- 
ords. These  models  are  particularly  useful  as  a 
step  in  teaching  visualisation  of  paths  by  photo- 
graphs alone,  later. 

Our  latest  apparatus  in  the  field  of  recording 
devices  apparently  fulfils  all  present  require- 
ments of  the  time-  and  motion-study  experts  and 
their  assistants  and  the  teachers  who  are  now  de- 
voting their  lives  to  the  transference  of  skill  and 
experience  from  those  who  have  it  to  those  who 
have  not.1 

We  have  also  devised  and  used  many  special 
kinds  of  apparatus ;  for  example,  devices  for  re- 
cording absolute  continuity  of  motion  paths  and 
times,  doing  away  with  the  slight  gaps  in  the 
jrecord  that  occur  between  one  picture  and  the 
next  on  the  cinematograph  film,  due  to  the  in- 
terval of  time  when  the  film  is  moving,  to  get  in 
place  for  the  next  exposure.  To  overcome  this 
objection  we  have  a  double  cinematograph)  that  ! 
one  part  may  record  while  the  other  moves  from 

i  See  "  Primer  of  Scientific  Management,"  D.  Van  Nostrand 
Co.,  New  York. 


70  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

one  exposure  to  the  next.  In  this  way  we  get  a 
continuous  record  of  the  operation.  There  have 
been  occasional  objections  to  all  methods  of  mak- 
ing time  and  motion  studies  that  involve  the  pres- 
ence of  an  observer.  Some  of  these  have  come 
from  those  working  on  what  they  consider  their 
own  secret  processes,  who  object  to  having  any 
observer  record  what  they  are  doing,  believing 
that  the  time  study  man  is  obtaining  knowledge 
of  their  skill  and  giving  them  no  information  in 
return.  Others  have  come  from  those  who  have 
seen  or  heard  "  secret  time  study  "  and  "  watch- 
book  time  study,"  and  who  regard  all  observers 
Kas  spies  because  of  general  lack  of  understanding 
!  and  co-operation;  and  there  are  some  instances 
where  they  are  right.  For  such  cases  we  have 
designed  an  automicromotion  study,  which  con- 
sists of  an  instantaneous  modification  of  the 
standard  micromotion  apparatus,  and  also  the 
autostereochronocyclegraph  apparatus.  This  en- 
^>ables  the  operator  to  take  accurate  time  study  of 
himself.  He  can  start  the  apparatus  going  and 
stop  it  from  where  he  works,  with  one  motion  of 
his  finger  or  foot.  This  invention  supplies  every 
possible  requirement  and  feature  for  time  and 


FIG.  10 

Prof.  Frank  E.  Sanborn  recording  times  and  paths  of  his 
own  motions  by  the  automicromotion  device. 


MOTION  STUDY  AND  TIME  STUDY       71 

motion  study  processes,  except  the  help  and  ad- 
vice of  a  properly  qualified  observer,  or  the  an- 
noyance of  having  one  not  fitted  by  training,  ex- 
perience, or  natural  qualities  to  co-operate. 

There  is  not  space  in  this  paper  for  a  discus- 
sion of  the  educational  features  of  observations 
made  with  these  devices,  or  of  their  influence 
upon  the  new  and  much  needed  science  of  fatigue 
study,  or  of  their  general  psychological  signifi- 
cance.1 It  is  only  necessary  to  emphasise  their 
adaptability,  flexibility,  and  relation  to  economy. 
We  have  here  a  complete  set  of  inexpensive,  light, 
durable  apparatus,  adaptable  to  any  type  of  work 
and  to  any  type  of  observer  or  self -observation. 
It  consists  of  systematically  assembled  units  that 
may  be  so  combined  as  to  meet  any  possible  work>_ 
ing  condition.  Through  a  specially  devised 
method  of  using  the  same  motion  picture  film  over 
and  over  again,  up  to  sixteen  times,  and  through  a 
careful  study  of  electrical  equipment  and  of  va- 
rious types  of  time  spot  interrupters,  we  have 
been  enabled  to  cut  down  the  cost  of  making  time 
and  motion  study,  until  now  the  most  accurate 
type  of  studies,  involving  no  human  equation  in 

i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York. 


72  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  record,  can  be  made  at  less  cost  than  the  far 
less  accurate  stop-watch  study.  This  time  study 
and  motion  study  data  can  be  used  when  it  is 
"  cold."  No  specially  gifted  observer,  combined 
with  the  most  willing  and  efficient  recorder,  can 
compete  with  it  for  observing  and  recording  facts. 
It  does  not  depend  upon  a  human  memory  to 
"  give  up  "  its  facts.  It  is  usable  at  any  time  and 
forever,  after  it  is  once  taken.  Naturally,  the  re- 
quirements for  refinement  and  the  special  set-ups 
to  be  used  in  any  case  must  be  determined  after 
some  study  of  the  case  in  hand. 

There  are  now  available,  therefore,  instru- 
ments of  precision  fitted  to  make  measurements 
as  fine  as  the  most  exact  science  demands, —  eco- 
nomical enough  to  make  both  immediate  and  ulti- 
mate savings,  and  that  meet  the  demands  of  the 
most  exacting  industrial  progressive.  When  the 
time  and  motion  study  is  taken  with  such  instru- 
ments of  precision,  there  are  still  other  by-prod- 
ucts that  are  of  more  value  than  the  entire  cost 
of  the  time  and  motion  studies.1 

i  See  "  Time  Study ;  a  Factor  in  the  Science  of  Obtaining 
Methods  of  Least  Waste." 

See  "  Psychology  of  Management,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New 
York. 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  MOTION  DEVICES 
FOR  MEASURING  ACHIEVEMENT  x 

The  great  need  of  this  age  is  the  conservation    j 
of  the  human  element.  *~~~* 

It  will  be  the  aim  of  this  paper  to  show : 

1.  That  the  human  element  can  be  more  effi- 
ciently utilised,  and  conserved  to  a  greater 
degree,  by  the  elimination  of  useless,  inef- 
fective and  ill-directed  motions.  *»~J 

2.  That  permanent  elimination  of  such  motions 
necessitates  standardising  the  motions  used 
in  any  activity. 

3.  That    standardisation    demands    accurate 
devices  for  measuring  achievement. 

4.  That  chronocyclegraph  motion  devices  meas- 
ure achievement  accurately,  and  thus  pro- 
vide for  standardisation  and,  ultimately,  for 
motion  economy. 

Stupendous  as  the  financial  loss  to  the  entire 
world  is,  on  account  of  the  great  war  that  is  now 

i  A  paper  presented   at   the   Second   Pan-American-Con- 
gress at  Washington,  D.  C.,  January  3,  1916. 

73 


74  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

being  waged  in  many  countries,  and  affecting  all 
countries,  it  is  as  nothing  compared  to  the  world's 
loss  of  the  human  element.  This  is  not  only  a 
loss  that  is  being  felt  by  this  generation,  but  it  is 
a  loss  that  will  be  felt  for  many  generations  to 
come.  It  is,  therefore,  a  great  world  problem,  de- 
manding the  attention  of  all  of  us,  to  conserve 
and  utilise  humanity  in  every  way  possible.  This 
problem  has  two  aspects.  The  first  is  the  utilisa- 
tion of  those  directly  affected  by  the  war,  either 
by  being  crippled  or  maimed  through  some  in- 
jury received  in  the  war,  or  by  being  forced  to 
become  productive  members  of  the*  community 
through  loss  or  crippling  of  the  earning  members 
of  the  family  caused  by  the  war.  The  second  is 
the  more  efficient  utilisation  of  all  other  members 
of  the  community,  in  order  to  make  up,  as  far  as 
possible,  for  the  loss  in  productive  power  of  in- 
dividuals either  killed  or  rendered  in  some  way 
less  efficient  by  the  war. 

The  need  for  economy  in  the  expenditure  of 
human  effort  is  not  new.  Even  in  the  days  of 
the  Pharaohs  there  was  the  realisation  that  every 
ounce  of  strength  of  the  worker  was  of  value,  as 
is  plainly  shown  by  photographs  of  the  ancient 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          75 

carvings  and  other  records  of  their  industrial 
practice.  There  was,  unfortunately,  in  those 
times  little  or  no  appreciation  of  the  humani- 
tarian side,  of  the  need  for  conserving  the  worker 
for  his  own  happiness  and  for  the  ultimate  good 
of  the  race  or  the  country.  The  practice  was  to 
extract  every  ounce  of  effort  from  the  worker  in 
the  shortest  amount  of  time  possible,  taking  little 
account  of  the  amount  that  the  worker's  life  was 
shortened  by  the  process.  With  the  ages  has 
come  an  appreciation  of  the  greater  benefit,  not 
only  to  the  individuals  in  society,  but  to  society 
as  a  whole,  to  be  derived  by  prolonging  the  life 
of  the  worker  and  increasing  the  number  of  hap- 
piness minutes  that  he  enjoys.  With  the  spread 
and  growth  of  the  movement  for  conserving  ma- 
terial things,  such  as  forests,  mines  and  other  nat- 
ural resources,  and  the  utilisation  of  the  sources 
of  energy,  such  as  water  power,  has  come  an  ap- 
preciation of  the  field  for  conservation  of  the 
human  element.  With  the  growth  of  the  science 
of  management,  and  the  emphasis  laid  on  motion 
study  and  fatigue  study,  has  come  an  apprecia- 
tion of  the  methods  that  may  best  be  used  to  ef- 
fect this  conservation.  Now,  with  the  enormous 


76  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

need,  has  come  the  realisation  that  practice  of 
this  conservation  should  be  started  immediately, 
and  maintained  permanently,  or,  at  least,  for  gen- 
erations to  come,  if  the  world  ever  expects  to  re- 
cover from  its  stupendous  and  almost  incalcul- 
able war  loss. 

"  Economy  "  has  become  the  watchword  of  the 
day,  and  it  is  an  excellent  watchword,  but  the 
practice  of  unstudied  economy  is  apt  to  lead  to 
serious  economic  disturbances.  The  first  step  in 
rational  economy  consists  of  investigating  the  re- 
lation between  economy  and  waste  elimination. 
It  is  necessary  to  realise  the  need  to  eliminate  the 
useless  and  the  need  to  utilise  to  the  fullest  ca- 
pacity everything  that  is  of  use.  This  requires 

1.  The  determination  as  to  what  is  useless  and 
as  to  what  is  useful. 

2.  The  determination  as  to  the  most  efficient 
method  of  utilising  the  useful. 

That  is  to  say,  it  requires  accurate  measurement 
applicable  to  activity.  The  problem  is  not 
simple,  for  along  with  the  activity  and  its  result- 
ing achievement  and  output  comes  the  fatigue  ac- 
cumulated by  the  worker  while  doing  the  work, 
and  fatigue  is  a  subject  concerning  which,  as  yet, 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          77 

little  is  known.1  Permanent  results  in  human 
economy  demand  accurate  records  of  fatigue  co- 
ordinated with  records  of  achievement,  and  with 
records  of  the  methods  by  which  the  achievement 
has  been  secured. 

To  find  and  apply  the  necessary  measures  for 
achievement  and  fatigue  is  primarily  a  task  for 
the  engineer.  His  training  impresses  him  with 
the  importance  of  measurement.  His  work 
makes  him  skilled  in  the  use  of  measuring  devices. 
Success  in  his  profession  depends  chiefly  upon  the 
continued  application  of  the  most  accurate  meas- 
urement available,  and  this  provides  the  incentive 
necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  scientific 
method.  The  engineer  must  secure  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  educator,  the  psychologist,  the  physi- 
ologist and  the  economist  before  he  can  hope  to 
secure  complete  data,  and  to  understand  the  full 
interpretation  of  what  he  finds, —  but  this  is  his 
duty 

1.  To  make  the  investigation  in  the  most  scien- 
tific manner  of  which  he  is  capable. 

2.  To  submit  his  finds  for  comparative  study 
by  others  and  for  the  use  of  the  world. 

i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  31  East  27th 
Street,  New  York. 


78  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

This  paper  describes  and  attempts  to  make  useful 
the  history  of  such  an  investigation,  a  search  for 
and  the  devising  of  satisfactory  devices  for  meas- 
uring achievement. 

J         It  is  a  fortunate  thing  to  be  born  in  an  age  like 
1     the  present,  when  the  scientific  spirit  prevails  in 
all  fields,  and  where  everything  can  be  legiti- 
V^mately  submitted  to  measurement.     The  world- 
wide desire  to  ascertain  causes  made  it  a  simple 
matter  to  realise  that  large  output  or  achieve- 
ment was  not  in  itself  so  important  as  the  reasons 
for  this  achievement,  with  the  consequent  placing 
f  the  emphasis  upon  the  methods  and  their  re- 
ults  rather  than  upon  the  results  alone.     The 
writers  thus  became  impressed  early  with  the  im- 
portance of  obtaining  as  accurate  and  detailed 
records  of  methods  as  possible,  if  achievements 
were  ever  to  be  accurately  measured. 

This  methods  study  was  formulated  into  mo- 
tion study,  and  divided  into  three  parts: 

1.  Study  of  the  variables  of  the  worker. 

2.  Study  of  the  variables  of  the  surroundings, 
equipment  and  tools. 

\  3.  Study  of  the  variables  of  the  motion  itself.1 

iSee  "Motion  Study,"  D.  Van  Nostrand,  25  Park  Place, 
New  York. 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES  79 

It  was  possible  to  make  fairly  satisfactory  red-  \ 
ords  of  workers  and  of  surroundings,  equipment 
and  tools  with  an  ordinary  camera.  These  were 
supplemented  by  descriptions  in  great  detail  of 
the  best  methods  observed,  even  to  the  making 
of  diagrams  showing  the  relative  location  of  the 
worker's  feet  and  the  position  of  the  working 
equipment.  Through  such  records  conspicuous 
wastes  in  human  energy  became  at  once  appar- 
ent, and  various  inventions  of  devices  that  cut 
down  the  amount  of  effort  necessary,  or  elimin- 
ated needless  fatigue,  were  made.1  With  these 
inventions,  and  the  comparison  of  the  motions  re- 
sulting from  them  with  the  motions  used  before 
the  inventions,  there  was  instantly  an  added  ap- 
preciation of  the  importance  of  a  study  of  the 
elements  of  the  motions  themselves. 

With  the  writer's  acquaintance  with  Dr.  Tay- 
lor and  his  epoch-making  discovery  of  the  neces- 
sity for  recording  unit  times,  came  an  added  ap- 
preciation of  the  needfor  including  time  study 
with  motion  study. jThe  great  problem  was  to 
record  the  motions  used.  The  cinematograph 
was  finally  resorted  to  as  an  accurate  recording 

i  See  "  Bricklaying  System,"  Myron  C.  Clark,  Chicago,  111. 


80  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

device.  The  invention  of  a  special  microchro- 
nometer  that  recorded  times  down  to  the  millionth 
of  an  hour,  made  possible  simultaneous  records 
of  this  microchronometer  and  the  positions  of  the 
worker  whose  activity  was  being  studied.  Even 
the  first  records,  though  unsatisfactory  in  many 
respects,  demonstrated  the  practicability  and  use- 
fulness of  these  methods  of  recording  motions. 
Little  by  little  the  method  was  improved.  An 
ordinary,  reliable  clock  was  placed  alongside  the 
microchronometer,  in  order  to  serve  as  a  check 
upon  its  inaccuracy,  if  any  occurred,  and  also  to 

v  provide  a  record  of  the  time  of  day  that  the  study 
was  made,  in  the  resulting  picture.  Temperature 

•  and  humidity  records  were  included  upon  the  pic- 
ture. Signs,  describing  the  place  where  the  in- 
vestigation was  being  made,  the  name  of  the  in- 
vestigator and  the  date,  were  placed  for  an  in- 
stant in  the  field,  and  thus  became  a  part  of  the 
permanent  record.  The  original  white  dial  with 
black  marks  was  subsequently  changed,  at  the 
suggestion  of  a  film  reader,  to  a  black  dial  with 
white  divisions  and  white  hands  that  left  a  clear, 
sharp  record  upon  the  picture,  and  recorded  the 
elapsed  time  of  each  exposure.  The  worker  and 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          81 

the  timepiece  were  placed  in  front  of  a  cross-sec- 
tioned background,  in  order  that  the  motions 
might  be  more  accurately  located.  The  ultimate 
value  of  these  records,  called  "  micromotion  rec- 
ords," far  exceeded  what  had  originally  been  ex- 
pected. These  records  were  useful,  not  only  in 
deriving  improved  methods  of  performing  work 
that  were  worthy  of  being  standardised,  but  also 
in  serving  as  most  admirable  teaching  devices.1 
The  negative  films  were  used  originally  for  the 
study  that  resulted  in  the  standards,  and  either 
these  negative  films,  or  positives  that  appeal  more 
readily  to  those  not  trained  in  film  observation, 
were  thrown  upon  the  screen,  and  served  as  topics 
for  discussion  in  the  foremen's,  managers'  and 
executives'  meetings,  or  as  demonstrations  of  the 
best  methods  of  those  learning  the  industry. 
Through  the  application  of  the  results  of  data 
gathered  from  these  films,  large  savings  in  indus- 
trial practices  were  immediately  gained.  As  a 
typical  example,  where  eighteen  to  twenty  textile 
machines  had  been  assembled  in  a  certain  shop 
before  the  application  of  micromotion  study, 

i  See  "  The  Psychology  of  Management,"  Sturgis  &  Wal- 
ton, 31  East  27th  Street,  New  York. 


82  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

sixty-six  were  assembled  after  the  results  of  the 
study  had  been  incorporated  in  the  shop  prac- 
tice. The  savings  were  the  direct  result  of  the 
micromotion  study,  combined  with  the  improved 
placement  or  assignment  of  the  workers  to  the 
work,  and  the  improved  surroundings,  equipment 
and  tools  with  which  the  work  was  done,  that  oc- 
curred in  connection  with  it.  We  have  here  ac- 
curate devices  for  recording  achievement  and  for 
measuring  the  amount  of  time  consumed  by  the 
achievement.  The  motions  that  made  up  the 
method  by  which  the  achievement  was  secured 
are  also  here  accurately  recorded. 

If  the  aim  of  making  motion  standards  had 
been  simply  to  provide  instruction  or  time  study 
data  for  those  already  skilled  in  the  art  of  doing 
the  work,  the  micromotion  records  would  prob- 
ably have  answered  every  requirement,  but,  im- 
portant as  it  is  that  those  who  know  how  to  do 
the  work  in  any  fashion  shall  be  taught  the  best 
way,  it  is  even  more  important,  for  the  savings, 
that  the  learner  shall  be  taught  the  best  way  im- 
mediately, that  is,  from  the  beginning  of  his  prac- 
tice. When  it  came  to  the  transference  of  skill, 
the  micromotion  records  were  not  completely  sat- 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES  83 

isfactory  in  enabling  the  workers  to  visualise  the 
path  of  the  motion  easily.  The  average  engineer, 
who  becomes,  through  his  training  and  the  neces- 
sities of  his  work,  a  good  visualiser,  even  though 
he  is  not  one  by  nature,  often  fails  to  realise  the 
small  capacity  for  visualisation  possessed  by  the 
average  person.  A  long  experience  in  teaching  in 
the  industries  made  this  fact  impressive  and  led 
to  the  invention  of  the  cyclegraph,  and,  later,  the 
chronocyclegraph  method  of  recording,  in  order 
to  aid  the  non-visualising  worker  to  grasp  motion 
economy  easily.  The  device  for  recording  the 
path  of  the  motion  consisted  of  a  small  electric 
light  attached  to  the  forefinger  or  other  moving 
part  of  the  body  of  the  worker.  The  worker  per- 
formed the  operation  to  be  studied,  and  the  path 
traversed  by  his  hand  was  marked  by  a  line  of 
light.  An  ordinary  photographic  plate  or  film 
was  exposed  during  the  time  that  he  performed 
the  work,  and  recorded  the  motion  path  described 
by  the  light  as  a  white  line,  something  like  a 
white  wire.  A  stereoscopic  camera  enabled  one 
to  see  this  line  in  three  dimensions.  This  line 
was  called  a  "  cyclegraph,"  since  it  had  been  de- 
termined a  cycle  was  the  most  satisfactory  unit 


84,  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

of  motions  to  be  thus  recorded,  and  the  method 
was  called  the  "  cyclegraph  method  of  motion 
study."  A  study  of  cyclegraphs  shows  a  need  for 
an  indication  of  time,  and,  while  the  path  of  the 
motions  is  apparent,  the  time  of  the  motions  is 
not  shown  by  the  plain  cyclegraph.  This  time 
element  is  of  great  importance,  not  only  for  se- 
curing records  of  comparative  or  relative  time, 
but  also  for  securing  records  of  exact  time.  The 
time  element  was  eventually  obtained  by  placing 
an  interrupter  in  the  current,  that  transformed 
the  white  line  of  the  cyclegraph  into  a  series  or 
line  of  dots  and  dashes.  This  made  of  the  cycle- 
graph  a  chronocyclegraph.  The  exact  time  is  se- 
cured by  using  a  tuning  fork  vibrating  a  known 
number  of  times  per  second  as  an  interrupter. 
The  record  now  becomes  a  series  of  timed  spots, 
and  the  method  becomes  the  "  chronocyclegraph 
method."  Through  intensive  study  of  the  ap- 
paratus, it  has  become  possible  to  devise  differ- 
entiated time  and  speed  spots,  and  thus  to  dis- 
tinguish various  motion  paths  in  the  same  stereo- 
graph (see  Fig.  12).  This  means  that  we  can 
now  attach  any  desired  number  of  lights  to  differ- 
ent working  members  of  the  worker's  body,  and 


FIG.  11 


FIG.  12 


FIG.  11 

Types  of  cyclegraph  apparatus  for  making  the  time  spots 
in  the  paths  of  the  motion. 


FIG.  12 
Types  of  lines  of  cyclegraph  spots. 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES  85 

obtain  synchronous  chronocyclegraph  records 
that  are  accurate,  yet  that  differ  in  shape  from 
one  another  to  such  an  amount  that  it  is  possible 
to  distinguish  each,  and  to  trace  the  continuous 
path  of  each  light  with  ease. 

The  latest  development  in  this  study  has  been 
in  the  line  of  cheapening  the  cost  of  the  appar- 
atus. As  in  making  micromotion  studies  it  was 
found  that  the  original  method  could  be  much 
cut  down  in  cost  by  using  the  same  film  as  many 
as  sixteen  times,  so  here  it  was  found  that 
cheaper  types  of  interrupters  can  be  used  in  place 
of  the  more  adjustable  tuning  fork,  made  orig- 
inally for  the  extremely  accurate  tests  of  the  psy- 
chological laboratory.  It  must  be  understood 
that  for  the  investigation  of  surgery  and  like 
types  of  activity,  and  for  use  in  investigations  in 
psychological  laboratories,  and  in  other  scientific 
fields,  the  most  expensive  and  elaborate  of  ap- 
paratus is  none  too  fine ;  but  it  is  possible,  where 
first  cost  must  be  considered,  and  in  much  work 
in  the  industries,  to  make  records  accurate 
enough  with  apparatus  that  is  within  the  reach 
of  any  one  desiring  to  own  it,  and  willing  to  de- 
vote time  to  learning  to  operate  it. 


86  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY. 

With  the  study  of  the  chronocyclegraph  data 
has  come  the  invention  of  the  penetrating  screen, 
which  makes  it  easier  to  visualise  and  to  meas- 
ure the  elements  of  the  cycle  being  studied.  It 
was  desired  to  visualise  simultaneously  the  time 
and  space  occupied  by  the  motion.  As  is  so  often 
the  case,  invention  was  here  held  back  by  a  belief. 
In  this  case  it  was,  "  Two  objects  cannot  occupy 
the  same  space  at  the  same  time."  It  took  years 
to  realise  that,  while  this  is  usually  true,  a  photo- 
graph can  show  them  as  occupying  the  space  at 
the  same  time.  This  multiple  exposure  method 
made  it  possible  to  place  a  cross-sectioned  screen 
in  any  place,  or  number  of  places,  in  the  picture. 
A  screen  may  be  placed  in  the  plane  in  which  the 
worker  is  performing  his  chief  activity,  before 
the  worker,  or  back  of  him.  The  worker  may  be 
enclosed  in  a  three,  four,  five,  or  six-sided  box. 
The  screen  may  be  set  at  any  angle.  In  short,  a 
cross-sectioned  screen  of  known  dimensions  can 
be  introduced  at  any  place  where  it  will  enable 
one  to  secure  a  more  accurate  record  of  the  mo- 
tion. This  is  done  by  the  simplest  and  most  in- 
expensive means.  Take  a  sheet  of  black  paper  of 
the  size  of  the  space  to  be  photographed,  and 


i<IG.    13 


FIG.  14 


FIG.  15 


FIG.  13 

First  photograph  of  "  penetrating  screen  "  in  the  path  of 
the  motions.  The  screen  is  erected  in  the  plane  of  the  edge 
of  the  table  and  the  hand,  arm,  and  face  are  penetrated  by 
it,  as  can  be  plainly  seen  in  the  stereoscopic  record. 


FIG.  14 

First  photograph  of  "  Direction  of  Motion." 
The  pointed  ends  of  the  time  spots  show  the  direction  of 
the  motion. 


FIG.  15 

First  photograph  showing  that  fast  motions  and  slow  mo- 
tions of  the  hands  and  arms  do  not  occupy  the  same  paths 
or  orbits. 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          87 

cross-section  it  with  white  lines  at  any  distance 
that  may  be  desired.  Then  photograph  this 
screen  at  any  place,  or  places,  desired,  by  expos- 
ing the  film  each  time  that  the  screen  is  at  a  dif- 
ferent pre-determined  place.  It  is  important 
that  the  time  of  the  exposure  of  the  screen  be 
right,  otherwise  it  may  either  be  difficult  to  see 
the  screen,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  the  screen  may 
be  so  prominent  that  it  interferes  with  seeing  the 
records  of  the  motions  themselves  easily.  The 
cross-sectioning  being  properly  made,  expose  the 
now  cross-sectioned  film,  and  photograph  upon  it 
the  work  being  studied.  The  resulting  photo- 
graph gives  the  path  of  the  motion  laid  along 
the  cross-sectioned  plane  divided  into  any  space 
elements  desired.  The  penetrating  screen,  there- 
fore, now  furnishes  the  last  desired  feature  for 
measuring  and  recording,  namely,  exact  distance 
of  motions.  This,  in  combination  with  the  fore- 
going list,  now  gives  us  records  of  exact  speeds. 

For  some  types  of  activity,  such  as  handling  a 
drill  press,  a  record  taken  from  one  direction  was 
satisfactory,  and  its  close  study  enabled  one  to 
double  the  output  of  the  machine  with  no  added 
fatigue  to  the  operator.  With  other  operations, 


88    •  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

such  as  the  folding  of  cloth,  it  was  desirable  to 
take  chronocyclegraphs  from  several  points  si- 
multaneously, in  some  cases  placing  the  camera 
in  front  of  the  operator,  at  the  right  side,  at  the 
left  side,  and  also  above.  A  study  of  these  rec- 
ords led  to  the  realisation  that  it  would  be  a 
great  advantage,  if  it  were  possible  to  study  the 
motion  from  all  angles.  An  advantage  to  the  mo- 
tion study  man  in  eliminating  all  useless,  ineffi- 
cient and  ill-directed  motions  and  in  his  general 
education  in  motion  study.  An  advantage,  also, 
to  the  worker,  who  could  thus  see  his  motions  as 
he  never  could  while  doing  the  work.  A  special 
advantage  to  the  learner  desiring  to  acquire  the 
skill  in  the  shortest  amount  of  time,  and  with  the 
least  amount  of  effort  possible. 

This  need  was  even  greater  in  the  case  of 
surgery,  where  it  was  found  impossible,  because 
of  the  necessity  for  operating  conditions,  to  take 
the  photographs  required  in  the  usual  manner. 
While  the  telephoto  lens  was  a  great  help  in  mak- 
ing it  possible  to  take  necessary  records  from  the 
amphitheatre  of  the  operating  room,  thus  neither 
disturbing  the  operating  conditions  nor  adding  a 
new  variable,  through  the  presence  of  an  observer, 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          89 

that  might  affect  the  methods  used,  here  also  the 
need  for  viewing  the  motion  at  other  angles  re- 
mained. [An  intensive  study  of  this  need  and  pos- 
sible means  for  overcoming  it  resulted  in  the  in- 
vention of  the  motion  model.  This  consists  of  a 
wire  model  that  exactly  represents  the  path, 
speeds  and  directions  of  the  motion  studied.  As 
many  cyclegraph  records  of  the  operation  taken 
from  different  angles  as  are  needed  are  made,  the 
cross-sectioned  screen  being  introduced  at  those 
places  where  the  direction  of  the  motion  makes  a 
decided  change.  These  cyclegraphs,  which  are  in 
every  case  stereochronocyclegraphs,  are  studied 
through  a  stereoscope.  Motion  models  are  made 
by  looking  at  the  path  as  shown  through  the 
stereoscope,  and  tending  the  wire  to  conform  to 
this  path.  The  wire  model,  when  completed,  is 
placed  in  a  black  box  cross-sectioned  in  white,  the 
cross-sectioning  being  placed  at  the  same  relative 
places  as  are  the  cross-sectioned  screens  in  the 
original  picture.  If  the  photograph  taken  from 
the  same  angle  that  the  original  photograph  was 
taken  is  exactly  similar  to  the  original  photo- 
graph, the  model  is  considered  a  success.  Each 
and  every  subdivision  of  a  chronocyclegraph  has 


90  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

its  significance,  and,  therefore,  the  model  must  be 
brought  to  this  state  of  perfection  before  it  is 
considered  complete.  Where  a  chronocyclegraph 
motion  model  is  desired,  the  spots  on  the  chrono- 
cyclegraph are  represented  by  spots  painted  upon 
the  model.  Black  and  grey  paint  being  used 
upon  the  wire  model  that  has  been  painted  white, 
the  result  is  spots  of  white  fading  through  grey 
to  black,  that  resemble  closely  in  shape  the  white 
spots  seen  in  the  chronocyclegraph.  It  is  possi- 
ble also  to  use  the  ear  in  teaching.  Through  a 
new  device  consisting  of  a  pendulum,  a  bell  and 
a  flashing  lamp,  time  records,  simultaneous  with 
the  other  motion  and  time  records,  can  be  made. 
The  same  devices  can  be  then  set  in  operation 
while  the  work  is  being  learned,  and  the  learner 
can  count  by  listening  to  the  bell  at  the  same  time 
that  he  is  learning  through  his  eyes  or  his  fingers 
by  means  of  the  motion  model.  The  significance 
of  all  these  devices  to  psychology  and  education 
can  only  be  appreciated  by  a  close  examination 
of  the  models  and  cyclegraphs  themselves,  and 
an  observation  of  their  methods  of  recording 
habit  or  lack  of  habit,  decision  or  indecision, 
grace  or  awkwardness,  etc.  Habit  is  best  re- 


FIG.  16 


FIG,  17 


FIG.  16 

First  photograph  of  wire  models  showing  one  man's 
progress  of  learning  paths  of  least  waste.  These  wires  rep- 
resent the  paths  of  the  left  hand  of  a  manager  on  a  drill 
press, —  a  machine  which  he  had  not  touched  for  twenty-five 
years. 


FIG.  17 

Chronocyclegraph  showing  two  cycles  of  a  foreman's  left 
hand  on  the  same  machine, —  showing  habits  of  "position- 
ing "  before  "  transporting  loaded." 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          91 

corded  by  the  stretched  cyclegraph,  which  allows 
of  the  various  lines  recording  habit  being  re- 
corded accurately,  yet  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
are  easily  distinguished  from  one  another.  These 
aspects  of  the  motion  models  are  important  to 
the  engineer  in  so  far  as  he  is  a  teacher  and  in- 
terested in  the  learning  process. 

Of  perhaps  greater  importance,  however,  here 
is  the  motion  model  as  a  means  of  devising,  main 
taining  and  improving  standards.  Through  the 
study  of  the  motion  path,  either  as  shown  in 
the  chronocyclegraph  or  in  the  chronocyclegraph 
motion  model,  and  through  a  comparison  of  such 
graphs  or  models  showing  the  paths  of  different 
operators  doing  the  same  kind  of  work,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  deduce  the  most  efficient  method  and  to 
make  this  a  standard.  Moreover,  each  standard 
motion  path  is  a  help  towards  deducing  other 
standard  motion  paths.  Through  an  intensive 
study  of  motion  paths  followed  in  doing  differ- 
ent kinds  of  work  efficiently,  there  has  come  a 
recognition  of  the  indications  of  an  efficient  mo- 
tion, its  smoothness,  its  lack  of  hesitation,  its  reg- 
ular normal  acceleration  and  retardation  and  its 
use  of  habit.  The  efficient  method  having  been 


re,     I 

inv 


92  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

standardised,  the  motion  model  or  cyclegraph 
then  acts  as  a  definite  and  tangible  embodiment 
of  this  standard  motion,  thus  enabling  one  to 
maintain  the  standard  with  comparative  ease.  It 
in  no  wise  precludes  improvement,  nor  suggests 
lack  of  progress  toward  the  ideal.  In  fact,  it 
suggests  improvements  because  of  its  continued 
availability  for  observation  and  study.  It  fur- 
nishes a  very  definite  starting  point  from  which 
such  improvements  are  to  be  made,  as  well  as 
a  measure  by  which  they  are  to  be  rated  and 
judged.  Through  a  comparison  of  the  motions 
used  in  different  lines  of  work,  in  the  industries, 
in  surgery  and  in  other  kinds  of  activity,  it  can 
be  shown  that  the  same  identical  motions  are 
used  in  doing  what  are  usually  considered  widely 
different  types  of  work.  This  allows  of  an  in- 
stantaneous location  of  the  place  where  skill  is 
lacking,  of  a  tremendous  amount  of  transference 
of  efficient  methods  from  one  trade,  craft  or 
profession  to  another;  and  of  a  consequent  sav- 
ing in  time  and  energy.  This  is  also  the  basis  of 
our  new  classification  of  all  activities  in  accord- 
ance with  their  motions  and  decisions.  These 
models  and  graphs  form  also  an  important  ele- 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          93 

ment  in  proper  placement,  since  it  is  often  pos- 
sible to  determine  through  them  directly  a  work- 
er's capability  of  learning  and  performing  the 
work. 

The  data  ascertained  by  these  motion  devices 
are  placed  upon  the  Simultaneous  Motion  Cycle 
chart.  This  analyses  a  motion  cycle  into  its 
component  parts,  and  indicates  graphically  by 
which  member  of  the  body,  and  in  what  method, 
each  portion  of  the  cycle  is  performed.  The 
Simultaneous  Motion  Cycle  chart  is  made  on 
cross-sectioned  paper  with  the  various  working 
members  of  the  body  used  as  column  headings, 
and  with  the  sixteen  elements  of  the  motion 
cycle  placed  vertically  on  the  chart.  By  the 
comparison  of  the  analysed  motion  model  with 
the  data  on  the  chart,  the  possibility  of  the  trans- 
ference of  work  from  one  working  member  of  the 
body  to  another  is  indicated,  and  the  field  for  in- 
vention of  devices  or  for  more  efficient  placement 
is  indicated.  The  Simultaneous  Motion  Cycle 
chart  that  is  the  outcome  of  the  chronocyclegraph 
motion  devices  has  been  used  by  the  writers  for 
years  in  the  industries,  and  has  been  presented 
by  the  writers  for  the  benefit  of  the  crippled 


94  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

soldiers,  in  whose  interests  they  are  at  present 
engaged,  with  the  collaboration  of  educators  in 
Canada,  England,  France,  Germany  and  Eussia, 
in  collecting  data.  The  engineers  of  this  coun- 
try have  been  asked,  through  the  American  So- 
ciety of  Mechanical  Engineers,  to  collect  and  send 
in  all  data  available,  that  they  may,  by  the  use  of 
this  Simultaneous  Motion  Cycle  chart  and  the 
models,  be  made  available  for  teaching  the  most 
profitable  motions  to  the  crippled  soldiers  of  all 
the  warring  countries  abroad. 

Important  as  the  work  for  the  crippled  soldiers 
is,  it  is,  as  has  been  indicated,  only  a  part  of  the 
conservation  work  that  must  be  done.  The  other 
part,  the  conservation  of  all  humanity  to  make 
good  the  great  present  loss,  should  be  undertaken 
by  a  body  like  this  Congress.  No  matter  what 
work  is  done  by  the  individual,  or  by  individual 
plants,  or  trade  groups,  or  industries,  or  even 
by  a  whole  country,  to  cut  down  waste  by  stand- 
ardising motions,  there  will  be  an  enormous  loss 
unless  all  nations  co-operate  in  making  and  main- 
taining standards.  There  is  no  excuse  here  for 
holding  secrets  from  one  another,  for  reinventing, 
or  for  allowing  any  nation  to  fall  behind  the  oth- 


CHRONOCYCLEGRAPH  DEVICES          95 

ers.  There  is  no  excuse  because  the  need  is  so 
overwhelming  that  all  countries  should  hasten  to 
start  international  standards.  Let  us  use,  there- 
fore, chronocyclegraph  motion  devices  as  an  aid 
towards  making  the  much-needed  international 
standards.  This  Pan-American  Congress  here  \ 
assembled  would  serve  as  the  most  admirable  I 
headquarters  for  a  Bureau  of  Pan-American  Mo-  \ 
tion  Standards.  Undoubtedly,  in  every  country 
here  represented  men  have  thought  of  the  advis- 
ability of  solving  this  great  problem  of  human 
conservation,  and  have  done  what  they  could,  each 
in  his  own  restricted  field,  and  largely  without 
encouragement.  It  would  be  a  wonderful  help 
to  these  investigators,  and  to  the  world  at  large, 
if  the  work  that  has  been  gradually  spreading 
from  the  individual  to  the  group  could  now  spread 
also  from  this  representative  group  to  the  mil- 
lions of  individuals  that  it  represents.  The  first 
step  in  this  process  is  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
every  member  of  this  Congress  in  the  necessity 
for  human  conservation,  in  the  practicability  of 
motion  economy  and  in  the  belief  that  measured 
standards  stimulate  rather  than  stunt  invention. 
The  world  must  come  to  think  of  efficiency  in 


96  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

terms  of  measured  elements  of  motions  and  to 
concern  itself  with  providing  for  efficient  motions 
and  sufficient  rest  for  overcoming  fatigue  there- 
from. This  is  not  only  a  world  problem  and  a 
pressing  problem,  but  it  is  also  a  unifying  prob- 
lem. At  war  or  at  peace,  every  nation  must 
realise  the  importance  of  the  conservation  of  the 
human  element.  If  we  emphasise  this,  we  not 
only  make  for  efficiency  in  that  more  work  may 
be  accomplished  with  less  effort,  but  we  work  also 
for  permanent  peace,  in  that  we  emphasise  a  com- 
\jnon  problem  and  suggest  a  common  solution. 


MOTION  MODELS :    THEIR  USE  IN  THE 

TRANSFERENCE  OF  EXPERIENCE 

AND  THE  PRESENTATION  OF 

COMPARATIVE  RESULTS 

IN  EDUCATIONAL 

METHODS  x 

This  is  the  age  of  measurement.  The  motion 
model  is  a  new  device  of  measurement.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  we  are  presenting  the  motion 
model  to-day  to  this  section  of  this  Association, 
which  stands  for  accurate  measurement,  and 
which  believes  that  advancement  must  come 
through  such  measurement. 

Your  general  subject  for  this  meeting  is  listed 
as  "  The  Scientific  Study  of  Educational  Prob- 
lems." You  are  to  be  congratulated  upon  hav- 
ing chosen  such  a  subject,  and  thus  having  shown 
your  belief  that  advances  in  education,  as  in  other 
fields  of  activity,  depend  upon  the  application  of 
the  scientific  method  to  the  solution  of  the  vari- 

i  Presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science. 

97 


98  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

ous  problems  involved.  The  art  of  teaching  need 
never  lose  its  ancient  respect  and  standing,  but 
the  science  of  teaching,  which  in  no  wise  sup- 
plants or  interferes  with  the  art,  enlists  a  new 
co-operation  from  all  those  engaged  in  like  types 
of  activity,  and  should  arouse  a  new  interest  in 
educators  themselves.  Only  where  the  scientific 
method  is  applied  can  one  expect  to  find  inven- 
tion that  is  improvement,  and  progress  that  is 
continuous  and  permanent. 

Now  the  continuous  application  of  the  scientific 
method  demands  three  things: 

1.  Units  of  measurement. 

2.  Methods  of  measurement. 

3.  Devices  by  which  measurement  can  be 
made,  and  can  be  made  at  a  decreasing 
cost. 

Many  such  units,  methods  and  devices  of  mea- 
surement, as  applied  to  education,  already  exist. 
There  has  been  in  all  fields  where  education  is 
going  on  a  lack  of  means  by  which  behaviour 
could  be  accurately  recorded,  and  the  records 
used  as  data  for  predicting  behaviour,  and  for 
outlining  methods  for  attaining  future  desired 
results.  Motion  models  supply  this  lack.  They 


MOTION  MODELS  99 

were  derived  in  industrial  experience,  and  were 
first  applied  in  teaching  in  the  industries,  but 
their  use  is  not  limited  to  the  industrial  field, 
nor  to  teaching  of  manual  operations. 

The  fact  that  this  paper  is  presented  here  is 
indicative  of  the  new  feeling  that  is  growing  up 
in  all  fields  of  activity,  of  the  necessity  of  corre- 
lation. This  realisation  of  the  importance  of  cor- 
relation is  the  outcome  of  many  things.  One  is 
the  tendency  of  this  age  to  think  in  parts  rather 
than  in  wholes,  in  elements  rather  than  in 
grouped  elements.  In  the  olden  times,  both  ma- 
terial things  and  human  beings  were  invariably 
thought  of  as  entities,  wholes;  but  with  closer 
thinking,  and  the  awakening  of  the  scientific 
spirit  of  analysis,  measurement,  standardisation 
and  synthesis,  has  come  the  realisation  that  the 
fact  that  the  thing  or  persons  as  a  whole  is 
often  far  less  important  than  the  fact  that  the 
thing  or  person  is  a  group,  or  community,  or 
combination  of  parts.  The  material  thing  is  an- 
alysed into  its  elements.  The  human  being  is 
thought  of  as  a  group  of  working  members.  The 
old-time  operation  is  thought  of  as  a  combination 
of  acts.  Now,  finally,  the  motion  itself  is  thought 


100  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

of  as  a  cycle  or  combination  of  elements  and  mo- 
tions. 

With  this  intensive  study  of  elements  has  come 
also  a  realisation  of  the  importance  of  likenesses 
between  things.  This  emphasis  on  likenesses 
may  be  given  as  the  second  reason  for  the  realisa- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  correlation.  The  old-time 
wise  man  wondered  at  the  differences  between 
things,  and  the  scientist  for  years  and  decades 
followed  the  old-time  wise  man,  and  placed  the 
emphasis  in  his  classifications  upon  differences. 
Our  ordinary  classifications  of  to-day  are  thus 
based:  for  example,  classifications  of  the  trades 
are  based  more  or  less  indefinitely  upon 

a.  Difference  between  the  types  of  men  who 
do  the  work. 

b.  Differences  in  the  ability  and  general  ed- 
ucation of  the  worker. 

C.  Differences  in  the  kinds  of,  or  the  value  of, 
materials  handled. 

d.  Differences  in  the  surrounding  conditions. 
Similar  emphasis  on  difference  marks  the  division 
of  the  trades  from  the  professions,  a  difference 
so  insisted  upon  that  any  attempt  to  correlate 
the  work  of,  say,  a  surgeon,  typist  and  brick- 


MOTION  MODELS  101 

layer,  meets  with  instant  and  almost  universal 
disapproval.  Yet  the  trend  in  science  to-day 
makes  it  more  and  more  apparent  that  all  have 
neglected  emphasising  the  likenesses  to  an  as- 
tounding degree,  and  that  a  heavy  price  has  been 
paid  for  this  neglect.  The  very  idea  of  differ- 
ence implies  division.  This  has  set  up  for  years 
boundaries  between  experiences,  professional  ex- 
periences and  teaching  experiences,  that  it  will 
require  yeoman  work  to  destroy. 

Yet  splendid  work  is  to-day  being  done  in  cor- 
relation. In  the  field  of  education  the  work  done 
has  not  only  a  scientifically  derived  theory  to 
support  it,  but  can  also  show  practical  and  suc- 
cessful results.  This  work  is  acting  as  a  stimu- 
lus and  a  guide  to  workers  in  other  fields  of  ac- 
tivity. Much  undoubtedly  remains  to  be  done  in 
correlating  various  types  of  teaching  and  learn- 
ing in  the  schools,  but  what  has  been  done  is  an 
indication  of  what  can  and  will  be  done,  and  there 
need  be  no  fear  of  the  ultimate  results.  Edu- 
cators are  also  to  be  congratulated  on  the  begin- 
nings made  in  correlating  teaching  in  the  schools 
and  colleges  and  in  the  industries,  such,  for  ex- 
ample, as  in  the  half-time  work  now  being  in- 


102  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

creasingly  introduced  throughout  the  country. 
However,  this  correlation  has  usually  been  imper- 
fect in  that,  while  the  teacher  of  such  "half- 
time  "  pupils  consciously  adapts  the  school  work 
to  fit  the  shop  needs  of  the  pupils,  the  shop 
teacher  and  school  teacher  have  not  generally,  as 
yet,  compared  methods  and  attempted  to  make 
the  pupils'  learning  experience  a  unified  one. 
Shop  teaching,  or  to  put  it  in  a  general  phrase, 
"  transference  of  skill  and  experience  in  the  in- 
dustries," is  at  present  such  an  indefinite  thing 
that  one  can  scarcely  blame  either  side  for  this 
lack  of  correlation.  In  this  country,  and  in  the 
same  locality,  are  existing  side  by  side  to-day 
methods  of  teaching  as  old  as  the  time  of  the 
guilds  and  the  most  modern  methods  of  teach- 
ing, with  an  indefinite  and  surprisingly  large 
number  of  steps,  or  grades  of  teaching,  in  be- 
tween. It  would  undoubtedly  interest,  and  it 
might  profit,  educators  to  trace  the  history  of 
teaching  in  the  industries;  but  this  is  not  the 
place  to  present  such  a  history.  This,  because 
ie  need  for  immediate  correlation  of  teaching 
tin  the  school  and  in  the  industry  is  so  pressing 
id  so  great. 


MOTION  MODELS  103 

Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  there 
been  such  a  need  as  there  is  to-day  for  economy 
in  all  lines,  to  compensate  as  far  as  possible  for 
the  enormous  loss  in  human  and  material  things 
caused  by  the  great  war.  We  have  endeavoured 
to  bring  out  in  various  recent  papers  the  im- 
mensity of  this  loss,  and  to  outline  various  meth- 
ods by  which  it  may  be  partially  met.  No  body 
of  thinkers  realises  more  clearly  than  do  the  edu- 
cators just  what  this  loss  means,  and  none  have 
proved  more  ready  to  do  their  part  toward  meet- 
ing it,  as  is  testified  by  the  noble  work  done  by 
educators  in  all  the  warring  countries  in  stand- 
ing ready  and  glad  to  do  their  part  in  the  "  mak- 
ing-good process." 

We  are  presenting,  therefore,  what  we  believe 
to  be  the  most  advanced  type  of  teaching  in  the 
industries,  as  a  contribution  towards  that  corre- 
lation for  which  we  all  long.  This  method  is  the 
result  of  years  of  experience  as  learners  and 
teachers  in  many  lines  of  activity.  It  has  the 
increasing  support  of  psychologists  and  teachers 
as  well  as  of  managers.  We  offer  it  not  only 
hoping  that  it  may  prove  of  service  in  your  vari- 
ous lines  of  activity,  but  with  the  assurance  that 


104  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

you  will  immediately  test  it  in  every  way  possible 
by  your  own  data  and  experience,  and  allow  us 
to  benefit  by  the  results  of  the  tests.  We  come 
with  an  equally  hearty  desire  for  co-operation, 
for  this,  in  the  final  analysis,  is  the  most  satis- 
fying incentive  of  all. 

In  order  to  make  clear  what  this  device,  the 
motion  model,  is,  and  what  the  methods  are  in 
which  it  may  be  used,  and  by  which  it  is  used, 
it  is  necessary  to  trace,  though  only  in  outline,  the 
history  of  its  evolution. 

The  motion  model  is  a  wire  representation  of 
the  path  of  a  motion.  It  is  the  result  of  years  of 
endeavour  on  our  part  to  put  a  motion  in  such 
visible  and  tangible  form  that  it  may  be  visualised 
and  measured  with  accuracy,  and  that  the  laws 
underlying 

1.  The  behaviour  that  caused  and  affected 
the  motion, 

2.  The  behaviour  that  resulted  from  the  mo- 
tion, 

may  be  scientifically  determined.  This  desire  to 
understand  motions  thoroughly  has  been  a  driv- 
ing force  with  the  writers  e'ver  since  the  start  of 
motion  study  itself.  The  study  of  motions,  of 


MOTION  MODELS  105 

course,  is  not  new.  It  must  have  existed,  whether 
used  consciously  or  not,  ever  since  there  was  any 
activity  at  all ;  but  what  is  now  generally  under- 
stood by  the  phrase  "  motion  study  "  had  its  be- 
ginning in  the  year  1885.  We  quote  here  an 
earlier  account,  by  one  of  the  writers,  of  his  first 
day  at  construction  work.  This  will  be  of  in- 
terest to  this  particular  audience  as  not  only  out- 
lining what  occurred,  but  indicating  to  some  ex- 
tent the  mental  process  that  lay  back  of  it.  We 
quote:  - 

"  I  started  learning  the  work  of  the  construe- 
tion  engineer  on  July  12, 1885,  as  I  had  been  prom- 
ised  that  a  thorough  mastering  of  at  least  one 
trade,  and  a  general  practical  experience  with 
many  trades,  would  be  followed  by  rapid  pro- 
motion in  my  particular  line  of  engineering.  I 
was,  accordingly,  put  to  work  between  two  spe- 
cially selected,  expert  bricklayers,  who  were  in- 
structed that  they  were  to  teach  me  the  trade  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  They  gladly  agreed  to  this. 
First  one  taught  me,  then  the  other,  and,  much 
to  my  surprise,  they  taught  me  entirely  different 
methods.  To  make  matters  still  more  puzzling 
to  me,  I  found  that  the  methods  that  they  taught 


106  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

me  were  not  the  methods  that  they  themselves 
used.  Now,  I  had  the  idea  that,  if  I  could  learn 
one  way  thoroughly,  I  could  be  promoted  in  the 
shortest  time  possible  to  the  higher  position  prom- 
ised me.  It  seemed  perfectly  obvious  that  to 
learn  two  ways  would  take  much  longer  than 
to  learn  one  way,  perhaps  twice  as  long.  Yet 
each  man  was  an  expert,  whose  methods  were 
considered  perfectly  satisfactory,  and  each  was 
turning  out  a  large  quantity  of  work  excellent  in 
quality.  Hoping  to  discover  which  method 
taught  me  was  the  better,  after  a  short  time  I 
quietly  placed  myself  between  two  other  brick- 
layers of  my  own  selection.  These  were  as  will- 
ing to  teach  me  as  the  first  two  had  been,  but  I 
became  more  puzzled  than  ever  when  I  found 
that  their  methods  were  different  and  that  neither 
one  taught  me  either  of  the  methods  shown  me 
by  my  first  two  teachers.  Naturally,  the  foreman 
soon  sent  me  back  from  my  own  wanderings  to 
my  first  location.  All  my  friends,  however,  had 
one  common  rule  for  me, '  Keep  at  it  on  each  brick 
until  it  is  in  true  position.'  I  struggled  on, 
trying  to  follow  first  one  method  and  then  an- 
other that  was  being  taught  me,  and  being  con- 


MOTION  MODELS  107 

stantly  admonished  by  my  first  teacher,  '  not  to 
make  so  many  motions.'  Disgusted  at  my  un- 
satisfactory results,  I  began  watching  this  first 
teacher  more  closely,  when  he  was  working,  and 
found  that  he  used  two  entirely  different  sets  of 
motions  when  doing  his  own  work,  both  of  these 
differing  radically  from  the  demonstration  set 
that  he  used  to  teach  me.  That  is,  all  three  sets 
of  motions  were  used  to  do  identically  the  same 
type  of  work,  the  only  difference  being  that  Set 
One  was  used  to  teach  the  beginner,  Set  Two  was 
used  when  working  slowly,  and  Set  Three  was 
used  when  working  rapidly.  I  looked  at  my  sec- 
ond teacher.  He  also  had  three  sets  of  motions. 
From  that  day  I  continued  to  observe  as  far  and 
as  fast  as  I  could,  and  have  found  in  practically 
every  case  that  every  worker  has  at  least  three 
distinct  sets  of  motions  for  doing  the  same  work. 
"Naturally,  as  time  went  on,  I  came  to  ask 
my  various  teachers, '  What  is  the  quickest  way?  ' 
Each  one  had  his  own  special  '  kinks/  or  short 
cuts,  such  as  putting  two  bricks  together  in  the 
air  and  then  placing  them  together  in  the  middle 
of  the  wall.  Of  course,  I  had  to  try  out  each  of 
them,  but  soon  found  the  great  difficulty  of 


108  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

achieving  the  first  quality  and,  at  the  same  time, 
using  high  speed  motions  while  working. 

"  My  observations  involved  certain  fundamen- 
tal questions: 

"  1.  Why  did  the  teacher  use  different  mo- 
tions when  teaching  than  when  himself 
working? 

"2.  Why  did  the  teacher  use  different  mo- 
tions when  working  slowly  than  when 
working  rapidly? 
"3.  Which  of  the  three  methods  used  was 

the  right  method? 

"  4.  Why  did  each  teacher  observed  have  his 

own  special  set  of  short  cuts,  or '  kinks '? 

"5.  What  was  really  the  best  method  of 

doing  the  work? 
"  6.  Was  the  insistence  on  quality  first  and 

right  methods  second  advisable? 
"7.  At  what  speed  should  the  beginner  be 

taught  to  do  his  work?  " 

Through  all  these  years  we  have  been  trying 
to  find  the  reasons  why  the  conditions  that  were 
so  puzzling  existed,  and  the  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions here  enumerated.  Both  reasons  and  an- 
swers depend  upon  a  few  simple  and  easily  stated 


MOTION  MODELS  109 

facts.  We  say  "  facts  "  advisedly,  for  the  motion 
models  have  proved  them  to  be  such.  We  use 
the  word  with  exultation,  for,  while  we  believed 
them  to  be  facts  for  years,  because  the  results 
justified  the  theories,  we  have  often  been  ridi- 
culed by  students  and  investigators  in  all  lines 
for  so  believing.  Only  since  the  motion  models 
demonstrated  the  facts  are  they  coming  to  be  ac- 
knowledged as  such,  and  are  we  receiving  assist- 
ance in  making  them  more  generally  useful. 
The  facts  are  as  follows: 

1.  The  motions  are  the  elements  to  be  consid- 
ered in  learning  to  perform  an  activity. 

2.  Right  motions  must  be  insisted  upon  from 
the  beginner's  first  day  at  work. 

3.  Right  motions  do  not  lie  in  the  consecutive 
acts  of  any  one  person  performing  the  activity, 
unless  he  has  been  specially  taught  the  standard 
method. 

4.  Fast  motions  are  different  from  slow  mo- 
tions. 

5.  Standard  speed  of  motions  must  be  insisted 
upon  from  the  learner's  beginning  on  his  first  day, 
if  least  waste  of  learning  is  the  first  considera- 
tion. 


110  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

6.  Right  motions  at  standard  speed  produce 
right  quality. 

7.  The  best  learning  process  consists  of  pro- 
ducing right  motions  at  the  standard  speed  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  laws  of  habit  formation. 

We  might  here  turn  immediately  to  the  motion 
model  and  show  how  it  demonstrates  these  facts, 
but  the  demonstration  will  be  clearer  if  the  steps 
in  the  process  of  the  derivation  are  carefully 
stated.  We  shall,  therefore,  return  to  the  seven 
questions  listed  above,  and  state  in  each  case  our 
conclusions  as  to  the  answer. 

1.  The  teacher  used  different  motions  when 
teaching  than  when  working  himself  because  he 
did  not  recognise  his  activity  as  consisting  of 
motion  elements.     He  attempted  to  demonstrate 
to  the  pupil  that  method  that  would  obtain  the 
desired  quality  of  work  product.     He  placed  the 
emphasis  on  quality  of  output  rather  than  on 
speed  of  learning. 

2.  The  teacher  used  different  motions  when 
working  slowly  than  when  working  rapidly  be- 
cause of  the  different  muscle  tension  involved. 
When  placing  the  emphasis  upon  speed,  he  was 
favourably  affected  by  the  variables  of  centri- 


MOTION  MODELS  111 

fugal  force,  inertia,  momentum,  combination  of 
motions  and  play  for  position.1  When  there  was 
no  such  emphasis  on  speed  he  was  differently  af- 
fected by  these  variables. 

3.  While  none  of  the  three  methods  of  any  in- 
dividual worker  was  at  all  likely  to  be  the  stand- 
ard method,   the  method  used   when   working 
rapidly  was  most  likely  to  approximate  the  stand- 
ard. 

4.  Each  teacher  had  his  own  short  cuts  in  so 
far   as   he   had   consciously   or   unconsciously 
thought  in  motion  economy.     These  differed  be- 
cause it  was  not  customary  to  compare  methods, 
because   working   conditions   sometimes    imply 
trade  secrets,  and  because  there  was  no  ade- 
quate correlation  between  existing  methods;  — 
the  eye  being  able  to  recognise  the  slow  motions 
only. 

5.  The  best  method  of  doing  the  work  did  not 
at  that  time  exist,  because,  due  .to  lack  of  measur- 
ing methods  and  devices,  it  was  not  possible  to 
record  the  elements,  or  motions,  of  all  the  differ- 
ent methods ;  to  measure  these,  and  to  synthesize 
a  standard  method  from  the  data. 

i  See  "  Motion  Study,"  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  New  York. 


112  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

6.  The  insistence  on  quality  first  and  right 
methods  second  was  entirely  wrong,  since  it  al- 
lowed of  the  formation  of  wrong  habits  of  mo- 
tions, the  result  of  which  is  a  lifelong  detriment 
to  the  user.     The  proper  insistence  is  upon  right 
methods  at  standard  speed  first,  and  quality  of 
work  product  second.     It  must  always  be  under- 
stood that  absolute  accuracy  of  method  and  speed 
occur  simultaneously  only  with  the  desired  qual- 
ity.   That  is  to  say,  take  care  of  the  method  and 
the  speed,  and  the  quality  will  quickly  take  care 
of  itself. 

7.  The  beginner  should  be  taught  to  do  his 
work   immediately   with   motions   of   standard 
speed.    Quality  should  be  attended  to,  however, 
in  every  instance. 

a.  By  having  the  learner  stop  constructive 
work  long  enough  to  correct  what  he  has  done, 
or  do  it  over  again  until  it  is  of  proper  quality, 
care  being  taken  not  to  confuse  the  doing  with  the 
correcting. 

b.  By  having  some  one  else  correct  the  work  as 
many  times  as  is  necessary,  until  it  becomes  of 
proper  quality. 


MOTION  MODELS  113 

c.  By  having  the  learner  work  where  the  finest 
quality  is  not  essential. 

The  determination  as  to  which  of  these  three 
methods  for  providing  that  the  resulting  product 
be  of  desired  quality  be  used  depends  upon  the 
type  of  work  done  and  the  type  of  learner. 

It  is  probably  needless  to  tell  a  gathering  like 
this  assembled  here  what  a  storm  of  adverse  crit- 
icism the  answers  to  these  questions,  embodying 
our  beliefs,  has  caused  in  the  engineering,  and 
also  in  the  educational  world.  In  fact,  this  storm 
of  criticism  still  rages  to-day,  and  we  expect 
many  objections  to  the  teaching  process  here  in- 
volved from  you  at  the  close  of  this  paper.  We 
ask,  however,  at  this  point  that  you  suspend  judg- 
ment in  this  matter.  Set  aside  all  of  your  preju- 
dices and  even,  perhaps,  your  experience,  to  put 
yourself  into  our  attitude  in  working  out  what 
we  have  stated  are  the  most  efficient  processes, 
and  then  at  the  conclusion  strike  the  balance  and 
assist  us  with  your  criticism. 

You  can  see  that  all  of  our  conclusions  rest 
upon  the  possibility  of  examining  and  comparing 
motions  and  their  results.  The  first  necessity, 


114  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

then,  was  to  obtain  an  accurate  record  of  the  mo- 
tion. We  used  the  fewest  motions,  shortest  mo- 
tions and  least  fatiguing  motions  possible.  We 
wrote,  and  collected,  descriptions  of  motions. 
We  made  diagrams  of  the  surrounding  conditions, 
even  to  the  location  of  the  worker's  feet,  at  the 
time  when  efficient  work  was  being  done.  We 
recorded  the  best  we  found  by  photography,  at 
first  with  an  ordinary  camera,1  later  with  stereo- 
scopic cameras.  These  gave  us  detailed  records 
in  three  dimensions.  We  used  the  cinematograph 
to  record  the  motions  being  made  against  a  cross- 
sectioned  background,  floor  and  workbench. 
This  enabled  us  to  record  and  follow  the  motions 
more  accurately.  We  then  invented  a  special 
microchronometer  for  placing  in  the  picture, 
when  we  could  find  none  in  the  market  that  could 
give  us  fine  enough  intervals  to  record  the  rela- 
tive times  of  different  motions.  This  micromo- 
tion  process,  with  its  combination  of  the  cinema- 
tograph, the  special  timing  devices  and  the  cross- 
sectioned  screen,  enabled  us  to  obtain  accurate 
and  satisfactory  records  of  methods  used,  except 

i  See  "  Bricklaying  System,"  Myron  C.  Clark  Company, 
Chicago,  111. 


MOTION  MODELS  115 

that  it  did  not  enable  us  to  visualise  clearly  the 
path  taken  by  the  motions  and  the  elements  of 
the  motions.1  Our  next  step  was  to  attach  a 
miniature  electric  light  to  the  hand  of  the  worker; 
to  photograph  the  worker,  while  performing  the 
operation  being  studied,  and  thus  to  obtain  the 
motion  path  under  actual  working  conditions. 
'Through  the  use  of  an  interrupter  in  the  light 
circuit  we  obtained  the  photography  of  time  in  a 
single  exposure.  Later,  through  a  time  con- 
trolled interrupter,  we  obtained  photographs  of 
exact  even  periods  of  elapsed  time  of  any  desired 
duration.  Through  the  use  of  a  special  arrange- 
ment we  obtained  time  spots  that  were  arrow- 
shaped  that  gave  us  the  invention  of  the  photog- 
raphy of  direction.  Through  the  use  of  the  pen- 
etrating screen  we  obtained  exact  distance,  and 
thus  exact  speed,  of  motions.  Finally  through 
the  use  of  the  chronocyclegraph  method,  which  is 
a  combination  of  these  various  devices,  we  ob- 
tained a  satisfactory  record  of  a  motion  path, 
showing  relative  time,  exact  time,  relative  speed, 
exact  speed,  and  direction  of  all  motions  in  three 

i  See  works  of  Muybridge,  Marey,  Amar. 

See  "  Concrete  System,"  Engineering  News,  New  York. 


116  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

dimensions.  This  chronocyclegraph  now  an- 
swers every  requirement  as  a  recording  device, 
and  also  as  a  demonstrator  of  the  correctness  of 
our  recommended  practice,  but  it  is  not  always  a 
completely  satisfactory  device  with  which  to 
demonstrate,  simply  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
stereochronocyclegraph  is  not  tangible.  While  it 
is  possible  to  throw  the  stereoscopic  records  upon 
the  screen,  it  is  not  satisfactory  to  enable  an  en- 
tire audience  to  visualise  a  motion  path  simul- 
taneously. We  were  forced  to  use  individual, 
single  or  magazine  stereoscopes.  As  a  result,  any 
group  of  learners,  although  provided  with  stereo- 
scopes and  with  the  same  picture,  or  cyclegraph 
record,  find  it  difficult  to  use  or  visualise  the  cy- 
clegraph simultaneously.  It  is  difficult  to  con- 
centrate the  group  mind  upon  the  individual  sub- 
divisions of  the  motion.  The  motion  models 
overcome  this  difficulty,  making  the  motion  path 
actually  tangible.  They  enable  us  to  demon- 
strate to  the  group  mind. 

The  chronocyclegraph  is  a  perfect  record.  It  is 
free  from  the  errors  of  prejudice,  carelessness, 
and  all  other  personal  elements.  The  motion 
model  is  the  precise  record  made  tangible,  and 


MOTION  MODELS  117 

transformed  into  a  satisfactory  teaching  device. 
We  must,  however,  establish  the  validity  of  our 
records  before  enumerating  the  advantages  of  our 
teaching  devices.  What  does  the  chronocycle- 
graph  show?  We  group  the  following  in  accord- 
ance with  the  seven  facts  stated  before : 

1.  The  chronocyclegraph  shows  that  the  sub- 
division of  the  motion  cycle  is  the  important  ele- 
ment. The  motion  cycle  can  be  accurately  re- 
corded, hence  analysed  into  elements  that  may  be 
standardised  and  synthesized  into  a  recorded 
method.  The  time  taken  to  do  the  work  cannot 
be  used  as  a  preliminary  standard,  the  worker 
being  allowed  to  use  any  set  of  motions  that  he 
desires.  The  elements  of  such  a  set  not  being 
scientifically  determined,  the  user  of  the  motions 
will  either  take  longer  than  necessary  to  do  the 
work,  or  become  unnecessarily  fatigued.  In  or- 
der to  come  within  the  time,  he  must  finally 
arrive  at  what  would  at  least  be  a  habitual  cycle 
of  motions,  many  of  which  are  inefficient.  If  any 
wrong  habit  of  motions  occurs  there  will  be  a 
serious  loss  later  by  reason  of  habit  interference, 
with  consequent  unnecessary  fatigue,  and  the 
likelihood  of  the  time  ever  becoming  standard  will 


118  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

be  greatly  reduced.  The  quality  of  the  output 
cannot  be  made  the  preliminary  standard,  since 
this  would  allow  of  unstandardised  motions,  with 
an  ensuing  decrease  of  speed,  and  would  result 
in  unstandardised  times. 

2.  The  chronocyclegraph  shows  plainly  the  ef- 
fects of  habit.    We  have  convincing  illustrations 
of  loss  in  efficiency  due  to  the  intrusion  of  old 
habits.     They  show  that  a  discarded  habit  will 
return  and  obtrude  itself  when  a  new  method  is 
for  some  reason  insisted  upon,  and  the  existing 
habit  cycle  is  broken  down  in  order  that  the  new 
one  may  be  formed.     Say,  the  worker  used  orig- 
inally habit  A,  and  has  come  to  use  habit  B.     If 
he  be  taught  cycle  C,  which  differs  from  A  and 
B,  where  he  fails  in  C,  he  will  be  apt  to  intro- 
duce an  element  from  A,  not  from  B.     The  com- 
plication is  evident.     To  profit  by  habit  the  laws 
of  habit  formation   must   be   rigidly  utilised.1 
These  laws  support  the  dictum,  "  Right  motions 
first." 

3.  A  comparison  of  the  chronocyclegraphs  of 
the  various  workers,  studied  in  connection  with 

i  See  "  The  Psychology  of  Management,"  page  234,  Sturgis 
&  Walton  Co.,  New  York  City. 


MOTION  MODELS  119 

the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  output  achieved 
and  with  the  standard  method  finally  derived, 
shows  that  the  best  method  does  not  lie  in  the 
motion  cycle,  or  in  the  consecutive  motion  cycles, 
of  any  one  individual.  The  micromotion  records 
are  of  enormous  benefit  here,  in  that  they  enable 
us,  at  any  time  and  place,  to  review  the  methods 
used  by  each  worker,  and  to  compare  them. 

4.  The  chronocyclegraph  of  the  same  worker 
performing  the  same  work  at  different  rates  of 
speed  demonstrated  absolutely  that  fast  motions 
are  different  from  slow  motions.  They  do  not 
follow  the  same  path  or  orbit.  Micromotion  rec- 
ords are  here  again  of  enormous  assistance. 
Through  them  we  were  enabled  to  observe  the 
worker  performing  the  work  at  practically  any 
speed  that  we  may  desire  to  see  him  use,  as  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  pictures  projected  per 
second  on  the  screen.  Those  of  you  who  have 


• 


made  a  study  of  motion  picture  films,  their  mak- 
ing and  projecting,  and  who  have  analysed  trick 
films,  where  the  people  move  far  above,  or  be-  ir 
low,  the  normal  speed  of  real  life,  will  at  once 
realise  the  possibilities  in  motion  analysis  that 
lie  here. 


120  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY. 

5.  It  having  been  shown  that  fast  motions  are 
different  from  slow  motions,  it  becomes  self-evi- 
dent that,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  habit 
formation,  the  learner  must  be  taught  the  stand- 
ard speed  of  motions  from  the  first  day.    If  he 
is  not,  he  will  not  form  properly  the  habit  of 
using  the  forces  that  lie  in  his  own  body  under 
Ms  own  control,  of  which  he  is  usually  at  present 
unaware.    It  must  not  be  understood  that  stand- 
ard speed  means  always  high  speed.     It  does  not. 
It  means  that  rate  of  speed  that  will  produce  the 
desired  results  most  efficiently.     It  must  be  re- 
membered that  there  are  a  few  motions  that  can- 
not be  made  at  the  standard  speed  at  first  by  the 
beginner.     In  such  cases  the  speed  should  be  as 
near  as  possible  that  used  by  the  expert. 

6.  The  records  of  quantity  and  quality  of  out- 
put that  are  made  simultaneously  with  the  chro- 
nocyclegraph  records  demonstrate  that  right  mo- 
tions at  the  right  speed  produce  the  desired  qual- 
ity.    This  is,  also,  demonstrable  through  logic. 
The  first  thing  to  be  standardised  is  the  quality 
of  the  resulting  product  desired.     The  standard 
method  is  then  made  to  be  that  method  of  per- 
forming the  work  that  will  produce  this  quality 


MOTION  MODELS  121 

most  efficiently.  Through  performing  the  stand- 
ard method  at  the  correct  speed  the  standard 
quality  does  and  must  invariably  result.  Dur- 
ing the  learning  process,  of  course,  quality  will 
seem  to  go  by  the  board,  but  this  is  only  during 
the  period  that  the  learner  cannot  succeed  in  per- 
forming the  method  described.  The  correlation 
between  the  methods  and  the  quality  is  perfect. 
Therefore,  the  expected  and  desired  result  must 
come  to  pass. 

7.  The  teaching  must,  therefore,  consist  of  two 
things : 

a.  The  right  method  must  be  presented  at  the 
standard  speed.     The  right  method,  taken  with 
the  cinematograph  at  standard  speed  of  motions, 
may  be  presented  slowly  by  projecting  fewer  pic-  \    \ 
tures  per  second  on  the  screen,  but  in  any  case 
the  motions  must  be  made  at  the  standard  speeds 
when  being  photographed. 

b.  The  right  method  must  be  followed  during 
the  determining  length  of  time,  with  the  proper 
rest  intervals  for  overcoming  fatigue,  and  always 
with  sufficient  incentive. 

The  learning  process  is  the  proper  repetition  of      4 
the  desired  method  at  the  standard  speed. 


122  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

It  remains  but  to  show  the  relation  of  the  mo- 
tion model  to  the  chronocyclegraph,  the  use  of  the 
motion  model  for  teaching,  and  for  comparing  the 
results  of  various  methods  of  teaching.  The  mo- 
tion models  are  made  by  observing  the  chronocy- 
clegraph through  the  stereoscope,  and  bending  a 
wire  until  it  coincides  with  the  path  of  the  motion 
observed.  The  chronocyclegraph  is  best  made  in 
combination  with  the  penetrating  screen,  that 
enables  the  motion  model  maker  to  measure,  and 
thus  to  transfer  to  his  wire  very  small  elements 
of  the  motion  path.  The  motion  model  maker 
is  provided  with  a  cross-sectioned  background 
against  which  he  can  hold  his  model  during  the 
construction  period,  to  compare  his  results  with 
the  cyclegraph  from  which  he  is  working.  He  is 
also  provided  with  a  cross-sectioned  box  in  which 
he  may  place  the  model,  for  observation  and 
analysis.  As  the  original  cyclegraph,  by  means 
of  the  penetrating  screen  method,  may  be  in- 
closed in  a  box  of  as  many  sides  as  are  desired, 
it  is  often  possible  to  facilitate  the  making  of  the 
model  by  the  use  of  a  properly  cross-sectioned 
box.  This  box  is  of  wood  painted  black,  with  the 
cross-sectioning  done  in  white.  The  motion 


MOTION  MODELS  123 

model,  upon  its  completion,  is  painted  black. 
The  spots  upon  the  chronocyclegraph  are  repre- 
sented by  spots  painted  upon  the  model.  These 
spots  are  made  of  white  paint,  shading  gradually 
through  grey  to  black,  and  when  finished  resemble 
very  closely  in  shape  the  pointed  spots  seen  upon 
the  chronocyclegraph.  The  motion  model,  which 
has  now  become  a  chronocyclegraph  motion 
model,  may  be  fastened  against  a  cross-sectioned 
background  and  photographed  from  exactly  the 
same  viewpoint  from  which  the  chronocyclegraph 
was  taken.  The  photograph  of  the  model  and 
the  chronocyclegraph  record  may  then  be  com- 
pared. Unless  they  are  exactly  similar  the  mo- 
tion model  is  not  considered  a  complete  success. 
In  cases  where  the  motion  cycle  recorded  is  com- 
plicated, it  is  of  great  assistance  to  take  chrono- 
cyclegraph records  from  several  different  view- 
points, as  such  records  assist  in  making  the  mo- 
tion model  more  perfect.  In  some  cases  two  or 
more  viewpoints  can  be  obtained  by  mirrors. 

The  motion  model  has  all  the  uses  of  the  chro- 
nocyclegraph as  a  recorder  of  standards.  In  ad- 
dition it  has  its  teaching  uses.  The  first  of  these 
is  as  assistance  in  visualising  the  motion  path. 


124  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

The  motion  model  makes  it  possible  actually  to  see 
the  path  that  the  motion  traverses.  It  makes  it 
possible  to  see  this  path  from  all  angles.  This 
was  not  possible  with  the  chronocyclegraph,  for, 
even  where  many  chronocyclegraphs  were  made, 
the  sum  total  of  them  only  represented  viewing  the 
motion  from  the  specific  number  of  angles.  The 
motion  model  can  be  viewed  from  all  directions, 
from  above,  from  below,  and  from  all  sides.  A 
further  importance  of  this  in  the  industries  is  seen 
in  the  effect  of  the  motion  model  upon  the  inven- 
tion and  redesigning  of  machinery  to  conform  to 
least  wasteful  motions.  The  necessary  limitations 
of  shop  conditions,  machine  operations,  etc.,  make 
it  often  impossible  to  obtain  a  chronocyclegraph 
from  more  than  one  direction.  Here  we  have  all 
such  limitations  for  viewing  the  motion  removed. 
The  motion  model  thus  immediately  educates  its 
user  by  enabling  him  to  see  something  that  he 
has  never  before  seen. 

The  motion  model  also  teaches  its  user  to  make 
more  intelligent  use  of  chronocyclegraphs  and 
cyclegraphs.  These  take  on  a  new  meaning  when 
one  has  actually  seen  and  used  their  correspond- 
ing models.  In  point  of  fact,  a  constant  use  of 


MOTION  MODELS  125 

the  motion  model  is  a  great  help  in  visualising  a 
motion  path  without  a  chronocyclegraph.  Of 
course,  such  visualising  cannot  compare  with  the 
chronocyclegraph  record,  though  it  is  often  suf- 
ficient as  a  stimulus  to  motion  economy  and  to 
invention.  The  motion  model  is  also  of  use  in 
that  it  enables  one  to  teach  the  path  of  the  motion. 
It  makes  it  tangible.  It  makes  the  learner  re- 
alise the  problem  of  transportation  involved. 
This  has  the  byproduct  of  impressing  the  user 
with  the  value  of  motions.  It  is  extremely  dif- 
ficult to  demonstrate  to  the  average  person  the 
reality  and  value,  and  especially  the  money  value, 
of  an  intangible  thing.  The  motion  model  makes, 
this  value  apparent  and  impressive.  It  makes 
tangible  the  fact  that  time  is  money,  and  that  an  \J 
unnecessary  motion  is  money  lost  forever. 

The  motion  model  is  of  peculiar  value  to  its 
maker.  The  process  of  observing  chronocycle- 
graphs  and  then  bending  the  wire  accordingly  is 
not  only  excellent  training  in  accurate  observa- 
tion, but  impresses  the  maker,  as  probably  noth- 
ing else  could,  with  the  importance  of  motions. 
He  comes  to  be  extremely  interested  in  the  sig- 
nificance of  every  curve  and  bend  and  twist  and 


126  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

change  of  direction.  He  comes  to  realise  the  im- 
portance of  the  slightest  change  from  a  straight 
line,  or  a  smooth  curve.  The  elements  in  the  mo- 
tion cycle  become  apparent.  He  learns  to  think 
in  elementary  motions. 

There  are  at  least  two  methods,  then,  by  which 
the  models  may  be  used  to  transfer  experience. 

1.  By  having  the  learner  make  such  models. 

2.  By  having  the  learner  use  such  models. 
The  sequence  with   which   these  two  methods 
should  be  used  would  be  determined  by  the  thing 
being  taught,  by  the  learner,  by  the  teacher,  and 
by  many  other  variables.     If  the  object  of  the 
teaching  is  to  transfer  some  definite  experience, 
or  skill,  in  the  shortest  possible  amount  of  time, 
it  is  better  to  give  the  completed  model  to  the 
learner  at  the  outset,  and  allow  him  to  make  a 
model  later  when  he  has  learned  the  standard 
method,  and  may  be  stimulated  to  invention.     If 
the  object  is  to  teach  the  learner  the  importance 
of  motions  and  their  elements,  it  is  better  to  al- 
low him  to  make  a  motion  model  first  and  to  use 
the  model  later. 

There  is  also  a  great  difference  between  the 
method  by  which  the  motion  model  is  used  to 


MOTION  MODELS  127 

teach  the  expert  and  to  teach  the  beginner.  The 
expert  uses  the  motion  model  for  learning  the 
existing  motion  path  and  the  possible  lines  for 
improvement.  He  notes  the  indications  of  an 
efficient  motion,  its  smoothness,  its  grace,  its 
strong  marks  of  habit,  its  indication  of  decision 
and  of  lack  of  fatigue.  Nothing  but  a  close  study 
of  an  efficient  motion,  as  compared  with  the  vari- 
ous stages  of  inefficiency  through  which  it  passed, 
can  make  clear  these  various  indications.  The 
changes  from  awkwardness  to  grace,  from  inde- 
cision or  hesitation  to  decision,  from  imperfect 
habit  to  perfect  habit,  have  a  fascination  to  those 
interested  which  seems  to  increase  constantly. 
The  expert,  then,  takes  the  model  in  whatever 
stage  it  may  be,  and  through  its  use  charts  the 
lines  along  which  the  progress  towards  a  more 
efficient  path  can  be  obtained.  The  motion  model 
is  to  the  expert  a  "thought  detonator,"  or  a 
stimulus  to  invention.  On  the  other  hand,  to 
the  beginner  who  is  a  learner,  the  motion  model 
is  a  completed  thing,  a  standard,  and  it  should 
be  in  the  most  perfect  state  possible  before  being 
given  to  him.  Through  its  use  he  can  see  what 
he  is  to  do,  learn  about  it  through  his  eye,  follow 


128  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  wire  with  his  fingers,  and  thus  accustom  his 
muscles  to  the  activity  that  they  are  expected  to 
perform.  Moreover,  he  can,  through  the  speed 
indications,  follow  the  path  at  the  desired  speed, 
by  counting,  or  by  the  use  of  specially  designed 
timing  devices  that  appeal  to  his  eye,  to  his  ear, 
or  to  both  simultaneously.  All  of  the  sense 
teaching  is  thus  closely  correlated.  A  further 
correlation  through  books  or  through  oral  in- 
structions concerning  the  significance  of  what  he 
sees  and  touches,  makes  the  instruction  highly 
efficient. 

This  method  of  instruction  may  seem  at  first 
applicable  to  manual  work  only,  but,  as  with  its 
use  the  importance  of  decisions  and  their  relation 
to  the  motions  becomes  more  apparent,  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  complete  field  of  use  has  by  no 
means  as  yet  been  completely  charted.  So  much 
for  the  motion  model  as  a  means  of  transferring 
experience,  or  of  teaching. 

We  next  turn  to  the  motion  model  as  a  means 
for  recording  results.  We  have  already  dis- 
cussed at  some  length  the  motion  model  as  a  rec- 
ord of  a  method  of  performing  an  activity.  It 


MOTION  MODELS  129 

can  also  serve  as  a  record  of  the  individual's, 
that  is,  the  learner's  response  to  the  teaching. 
If  at  various  stages  of  the  individual's  learning 
process  his  behaviour  be  chronocyclegraphed  and 
then  motion  modeled,  and  the  results  compared 
with  the  motion  model,  we  have  a  very  definite 
and  visible  standard  of  progress.  If  various  in- 
dividuals at  the  same  stage  of  learning  be  thus 
handled,  we  have  not  only  a  record  of  their 
progress,  but  also  a  record  of  the  value  of  the 
method  being  used.  If  proper  test  conditions  be 
maintained,  and  other  individuals  be  trained 
along  a  different  method,  and  the  various  sets  of 
motion  models  be  then  compared,  we  have  a  com- 
parative record  of  results.  It  will  be  seen  that 
this  method  of  comparing  results  may  be  used 
even  where  the  motion  model  has  not  in  any  way 
been  used  as  a  teacher.  The  results  of  any  num- 
ber of  educational  methods  that  manifest  them- 
selves in  any  form  of  behaviour  may  be  com- 
pared. 

We  have  also  a  method  that  will  record  fatigue, 
and  that,  therefore,  will  make  possible  the  de- 
termination of  rest  periods,  their  length  com- 


ISO  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

pared  to  working  periods,  and  also  their  distribu- 
tion throughout  the  hours  of  the  day.1 

We  have  said  many  times  that  there  is  no  waste 
in  the  world  to-day  that  equals  the  waste  in 
needless,  ineffective  and  ill-directed  motions  and 
their  resulting  unnecessary  fatigue.  This  means 
that  there  are  no  savings  that  can  be  made  to- 
day that  can  compare  with  those  made  by  elimi- 
nating useless  motions,  and  transforming  ineffec- 
tive and  ill-directed  motions  into  properly  di- 
rected and  efficient  motions.  "Motion  Econ- 
,  omy,"  "  Savings  "  and  "  Waste  Elimination  " 
must  be  the  watchwords  of  the  day ;  savings  not 
only  in  money,  but  in  the  mental  and  physical 
elements  that  produce  the  money  and  the  dura- 
ble satisfactions  of  life.  It  is  for  you  to  con- 
serve, to  utilise  and  to  increase  this  intelligence 
by  training  all  people,  and  especially  the  coming 
generation,  to  become  thinkers  in  elements  of 
motions.  The  greatest  wealth  of  the  nation  con- 
sists of  the  intelligence  and  skill  of  its  people. 

i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  page  127,  Sturgis  &  Walton  Co., 
New  York  City. 


MOTION  STUDY  FOE  THE  CKIPPLED 
SOLDIEK  x 

To-day  there  are  several  million  men  living  in 
Europe  who  have  suffered  the  loss  of  limbs,  facul- 
ties, or  both,  as  a  result  of  injuries  in  the  great 
war.  Before  this  war  is  over  this  number  will 
be  enormously  increased.  No  one  who  has  not 
actually  seen  hundreds  of  wounded  soldiers  writh- 
ing in  agony  in  the  cars  or  hospitals  can  fully 
realise  the  conditions  that  exist,  but  the  pictures 
and  accounts  from  the  front  have  been  so  vivid 
that  the  whole  world  has  been  aroused  to  a  con- 
crete expression  of  sympathy  and  efforts  to  al- 
leviate the  immediate  suffering. 

However,  there  has  been,  as  yet,  little  or  no 
thought  given  to  the  permanent  suffering  that  is 
by  far  the  most  serious  aspect  of  the  subject. 
What  is  to  be  done  with  these  millions  of  crip- 
ples, when  their  injuries  have  been  remedied  as 
far  as  possible,  and  when  they  are  obliged  to 
become  again  a  part  of  the  working  community? 

i  Presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  New  York  local  section  of 
The  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers.  f 

i3i  G>dr 


132  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

At  the  close  of  the  war  the  various  countries 
now  engaged  in  it  will  find  themselves  for  years, 
and  probably  decades,  fully  occupied  in  devising 
ways  and  means  for  paying  the  interest  on  their 
enormous  debts.  They  will  not  be  able  to  pension 
adequately  and  properly  to  provide  financially 
for  their  astounding  numbers  of  incapacitated 
soldiers.  Neither  would  any  system  of  pension- 
ing, if  that  were  financially  possible,  completely 
solve  the  problem,  since  the  large  majority  of 
such  cripples  will  be  helped  more  by  being  pro- 
vided with  interest  and  occupation  than  even  by 
financial  support.  The  great  problem  that  faces 
the  world  to-day  is,  therefore,  immediate  and  per- 
manent provision  for  enabling  these  millions  of 
crippled  soldiers  to  become  self-supporting.  This 
is  a  world  problem  rather  than  a  problem  for 
those  countries  only  that  are  directly  involved 
in  the  war,  and  demands  a  world-wide  solution. 
The  crippled  soldiers  are  of  many  types,  for 
this  war  is  a  war  of  all  classes,  and  not  of  the 
professional  soldiers  only,  as  one  is  at  times  in- 
clined to  think.  In  all  countries,  men  from  the 
colleges,  the  professions,  the  shops  and  the  fac- 
tories are  at  the  front  along  with  the  usual  mili- 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  133 

tary  force.  The  cripples,  therefore,  will  be  of  all 
types,  and  vary  in  training  and  capability  as 
well  as  in  the  injuries  that  they  receive.  We 
might,  therefore,  roughly  classify  them  as  fol- 
lows: 

a.  Men  who  have  done  chiefly  mental  work. 

b.  Men  who  have  done  chiefly  physical  work, 
but  whose  capabilities  will  allow  them  to 
be  transferred  to  mental  work. 

c.  Men  who  have  done  physical  work,  and 
whose  capabilities  and  inclinations  are 
confined  to  physical  work. 

The  first  two  classes  can  be  handled  with  com- 
parative ease  when  crippled.  The  third  class  pre- 
sents the  most  difficult  phase  of  the  problem. 
This  problem  might  be  summarised  as  that  of 
teaching  and  fitting  cripples  for  some  sort  of  pro- 
ductive work,  and  specially  modifying  and  adapt- 
ing the  work  to  the  individual  capabilities,  prefer- 
ences, difficulties  and  shortcomings.  The  prob- 
lem is  an  exaggerated  new  form  of  vocational 
guidance,  vocational  training,  and  systematic 
placement  of  men. 

The  educators  have  been  quick  to  see  their  re- 
sponsibilities in  this  work.     They  have  provided, 


134  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

wherever  possible,  in  existing  or  new  institu- 
tions, opportunities  for  crippled  brain  workers 
to  become  productive,  and  have  been  ready  and 
willing  to  devise  opportunities  and  to  furnish 
teaching  for  those  previously  engaged  in  physical 
work  to  learn  and  to  use  any  mental  work  of 
which  they  are  capable.  They  have,  however,  rea- 
lised with  equal  rapidity  their  limitations  in 
placing  crippled  soldiers  whose  bent  is  towards 
some  type  of  physical  work,  as  they  have  seen 
that  this  line  of  placement  lies  in  the  specialised 
field  of  the  management  engineer. 

The  engineer,  both  because  of  his  training  and 
practice,  thinks  largely  in  terms  of  physical  ca- 
pacity and  its  concrete  results.  The  engineer 
of  to-day  emphasises  the  human  element  as  a 
factor  in  accomplishing  results,  and  it  is  his 
peculiar  province  to  make  this  human  element 
most  efficient.  Knowing  that  the  authors  had 
specialised  for  years  in  this  type  of  work,  edu- 
cators in  the  various  warring  countries  have 
urged  them  to  attack  this  particular  branch  of 
the  crippled  soldiers'  problem,  and  to  put  the  re- 
sults of  modern  management  in  general,  and  of 
motion  study  in  particular,  at  the  disposal  of 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  135 

those  in  active  charge  of  training  the  cripples. 
No  great  amount  of  urging  was  needed.  The  au- 
thors have,  before  and  since  the  war  began, 
crossed  more  than  a  dozen  European  frontiers, 
have  visited  many  hospitals  and  recovery  homes, 
and  seen  at  first  hand  the  frightful  need,  and  re- 
turn to  this  country  not  only  with  the  desire  to 
be  of  service,  but  with  a  definite  plan  as  to  how 
service  can  be  most  adequately  rendered. 

The  method  of  attack  of  the  problem  is  as  fol- 
lows: It  is  realised  that  the  psychological  fea- 
ture is  an  important  one.  A  prime  necessity 
is  to  inspire  the  cripple  with  the  feeling  that  he 
can  remain,  or  become,  a  productive  member  of 
the  community.  This  is  done  by  gathering  data 
as  to  cripples  of  various  types  who  have  succeeded 
in  becoming  useful  and  earning  members  of  the 
community.  These  data  consist  of  concrete  ex- 
amples of  men,  women,  or  children  incapacitated 
in  any  way,  who  have  been  enabled  by  any  pos- 
sible means  to  be  useful  to  themselves  and  to  so- 
ciety. Such  data  have  been  and  are  being  accu- 
mulated at  an  astonishing  rate.  They  serve  not 
only  to  encourage  the  cripple  by  suggesting  that 
what  has  been  done,  can  be  done,  but  also  by  in- 


136  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

dicating  immediate  methods  of  attack  upon  in- 
dividual problems.  Back  of  all  these  individual 
illustrations,  however,  must  lie  a  scientific 
method  for  attacking  the  general  and  the  indi- 
vidual condition  of  each  cripple,  for  diagnosing 
the  particular  case,  and  prescribing  an  adequate 
remedy.  This  is  our  contribution  towards  the 
solution  of  the  problem. 

The  motion  study  method  of  attack  considers 
the  work  to  be  done  as  a  demand  for  certain  mo- 
tions, and  the  proposed  worker  as  a  supply  of 
certain  motions.     It  aims 
a.  To  consider  all  work  from  the  motion  study 

standpoint, —  to  discover  exactly, 

1.  What  motions  have  been  used  for  the 
work. 

2.  What  motions  may  be  used  for  the  work. 

3.  What  motions  must  be  used  for  the  work. 
ft.  To  discover  what  motions  are  possible  to  the 

proposed  worker. 
c.  To  determine  which  type  of  work  may  best  be 

adapted  to  the  worker,  and  how. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  that  motion  study  con- 
siders always  three  groups  of  variables,  which,  in 
the  industries,  are 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  137 

a.  The  variables  of  the  worker. 

6.  The  variables  of  the  surroundings,  equipment 

and  tools. 
c.  The  variables  of  the  motions. 

i 

In  adapting  motion  study  to  'the  crippled  sol- 
diers' problem,  we  are  considering  these  same 
three  groups. 

We  realise  that  our  problem  is  twofold  in  its 
aspect.  It  consists  of 

a.  Determining  the  type  of  work  that  the  particu- 
lar worker  can  best  do. 
&.  Determining  that  method  by  which  he  can  best 

be  taught  to  do  the  work. 

The  teaching  element  is  more  important  in  this 
new  phase  of  adequate  placement  than  it  has  ever 
been  before,  because  in  every  case  a  new  or 
changed  worker  must  be  made  useful,  self-sup- 
porting and  interested.  That  he  become  and 
remain  interested  implies  the  highest  form  of 
teaching  and  of  learning. 

The  first  step  in  adequate  placement  through 
motion  study  lies  in  visualising  the  motions  used, 
or  necessary,  in  any  given  type  of  work.  The 
simultaneous  motion  cycle  chart  is  a  device  for 
recording  and  showing  the  interrelation  of  the 


L 


138  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

individual  motions  and  cycles  of  motions  used 
in  any  method  of  performing  any  piece  of  work. 
This  motion  chart  was  devised  and  is  used  by  us 
in  our  consulting  work  of  motion  study  in  the  in- 
dustries. Here  we  deal  mostly  with  those  who 
have  the  use  of  all  their  limbs  and  faculties,  but 
the  chart  is  equally  applicable  when  dealing  with 
cripples. 

The  elements  of  a  cycle  of  decisions  and  mo- 
tions, either  running  partly  or  wholly  concur- 
rently with  other  elements  in  the  same  or  other 
cycles,  consist  of  the  following,  arranged  in  vary- 
ing sequences :  1.  Search,  2.  Find,  3.  Select,  4. 
Grasp,  5.  Position,  6.  Assemble,  7.  Use,  8.  Disas- 
semble, or  take  apart,  9.  Inspect,  10.  Transport, 
loaded,  11.  Pre-position  for  next  operation,  12. 
Release  load,  13.  Transport,  empty,  14.  Wait  (un- 
avoidable delay),  15.  Wait  (avoidable  delay),  16. 
Rest  (for  overcoming  fatigue). 

The  simultaneous  motion  cycle  chart  is  best 
made  on  decimal  cross-sectioned  paper.  The  hor- 
izontal lines,  reading  from  the  top  down,  repre- 
sent time.  We  have  found  that  the  thousandth 
of  a  minute  is  the  best  unit  with  which  to  work. 
The  various  vertical  spaces  are  divided  into  ana- 


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FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  139 

tomical  groups,  such  as  right  arm  and  left  arm, 
consisting  of  the  subgroups,  upper  arm,  lower 
arm,  wrist,  thumb,  first  finger,  second  finger, 
third,  fourth,  and  palm;  right  leg  and  left  leg, 
with  the  subgroups  of  thigh,  knee,  calf,  ankle, 
heel  and  toes ;  trunk,  with  the  subgroups  of  for- 
ward bend,  backward  bend,  bend  to  right,  bend 
to  left,  twist  to  right,  twist  to  left,  hump,  and 
shrug ;  head,  with  the  subgroups  of  forward  bend, 
backward  bend,  turn  to  the  right,  turn  to  the  left, 
and  mouth;  eyes,  with  the  subgroups  of  ball, 
pupil  and  lens.  There  should  also  be  the  general 
heading  of  inspection,  with  the  subdivisions  of 
see,  smell,  touch,  taste,  hear,  blow  and  count ;  and 
the  heading  posture  with  the  subdivisions  of  sit, 
stand,  kneel,  stoop,  right  forearm  supported,  left 
forearm  supported,  right  hand  supported,  left 
hand  supported,  back  supported  and  head  sup- 
ported, etc. 

Charting  the  data  in  this  manner  makes  it 
possible  at  a  glance  to  visualise  a  simultaneous 
cycle  and  the  elements  of  the  cycle  of  work  done. 
The  various  motion  cycles  in  the  method  under 
investigation  are  analysed  into  these  elements. 
Through  this  analysis  we  are  able  to  work  out 


140  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

new  sequences,  cycles  and  methods  of  doing  any 
type  of  work.  Thus  many  types  of  work  that 
have  been  formerly  considered  possible  only  for 
the  man  in  complete  possession  of  all  his  members 
and  faculties  can  be  adapted  to  the  maimed  or 
crippled  worker.  The  chart  shows  in  a  concrete 
form  which  members  and  faculties  of  the  asso- 
ciated units  or  working  members  of  the  human 
body  are  doing  the  work,  are  inefficiently  occu- 
pied, or  are  available  for  doing  parts  or  all  of 
the  work.  They  enable  us  to  see  at  a  glance  not 
only  how  motions  are  at  the  present  being  made, 
but  the  possibilities  of  shifting  these  motions  to 
other  members  of  the  worker's  body.  In  other 
words,  when  using  these  charts  for  the  crippled 
soldiers'  work  we  are  enabled  to  proceed  im- 
mediately and  directly  to  the  more  efficient  re- 
arrangement, distribution  and  assignment  of  the 
necessary  motions  to  the  different  remaining 
members. 

The  data  included  in  these  charts  are  gathered 
through  various  methods  of  making  motion 
studies,  especially  by  the  use  of  the  micromotion 
method  and  the  chronocyclegraph  method  of  re- 
cording motion  in  the  research  laboratory.  Here 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          141 

records  of  methods  are  made  with  special  devices, 
microchronometer  and  the  cinematograph,  and 
also  with  the  chronocyclegraph  apparatus.  The 
former  type  of  records  record  the  activity  of  the 
worker,  the  surroundings,  equipment  and  tools, 
and  also  the  time  of  the  motions  used.  The  lat- 
ter records  show  the  directions,  speeds  and  paths 
of  the  motions.  The  records  serve  not  only  as 
data  for  the  simultaneous  motion  cycle  chart, 
but  also  as  the  most  efficient  of  teaching  devices. 
From  the  chronocyclegraph  records  are  made  mo- 
tion models  that  not  only  make  it  possible  for 
teacher  and  learner  to  visualise  the  desired  mo- 
tions from  all  viewpoints,  but  that  also  serve  as 
path  guides  in  case  the  worker  taught  is  of  the 
motor  type. 

Until  recently,  it  has  been  considered  good 
enough  practice  in  the  industries  to  teach  the 
traditional  or  existing  method  of  a  successful 
workman.  Through  the  methods  and  measuring 
devices  of  precision  used  in  the  motion  study  lab- 
oratory we  are  now  able  to  record  with  exact- 
ness and  in  detail  the  methods  of  the  most  skilled 
workmen.  By  the  use  of  the  scientific  method  of 
analysis,  measurement  and  synthesis  we  arrive 


142  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

at  the  method  of  least  waste  for  performing  the 
work.  Through  special  teaching  devices  we  then 
transfer  the  selected  elements  of  skill  and  expe- 
rience, in  a  new  synthesised  cycle  of  least  waste, 
to  workers  who  have  never  had  that  all  around, 
non-guided  experience  or  its  slowly  acquired  skill. 
Not  only  are  the  methods  transferred  more  effi- 
ciently but  there  is  saving  of  time  and  effort  to 
both  teacher  and  learner,  as  is  satisfactorily 
shown  by  learning  curves  of  many  past  perform- 
ances on  widely  varied  types  of  work.  The  teach- 
ing devices,  which  we  have  specially  adapted  to 
appeal  to  as  many  types  of  workers  as  possible 
and  to  all  available  senses,  are  especially  useful 
with  crippled  learners,  where  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  specialise  on  some  particular  sense  train- 
ing. 

The  fatigue  study  that  accompanies  the  motion 
study  provides  for  the  elimination  of  all  unneces- 
sary fatigue,  and  for  adequate  rest  for  overcom- 
ing necessary  fatigue.  Such  study  is  imperative 
in  the  work  with  cripples,  since  the  greatest  of 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  maimed  worker  is 
not  over-taxed.1 

i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York. 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          143 

While  this  method  of  attack  brings  gratifying 
results,  no  great  headway  can  be  made  with  the 
crippled  soldiers'  problem  without  worldwide  co- 
operation. Such  co-operation  has  been  forthcom- 
ing wherever  interest  in  the  subject  has  been 
aroused.  We  gratefully  acknowledge  the  receipt 
of  suggestions  and  co-operation  from  members  of 
our  organisation,  from  friends  in  many  parts  of 
America  and  other  countries,  and  particularly 
from  the  alumni  and  friends  of  our  Summer 
School  of  Scientific  Management,  and  we  most 
earnestly  beg  for  more  and  more.  We  need 
photographs,  records  and  histories  of  cases  where 
cripples  have  been  made  comfortable  and  less 
fatigued  in  their  work,  and  have  been  taught  and 
are  successfully  doing  work  in  spite  of  their  ap- 
parently insurmountable  handicaps.  The  crip- 
pling is  of  every  conceivable  type,  and  every  suc- 
cess will  encourage  some  disheartened  invalid  to 
take  up  life  with  a  new  courage.  We  want  also 
suggestions  for  adaptations  of  machines,  tools, 
and  other  equipment  or  surroundings  to  workers. 
For  example,  we  have  found  that  typewriter 
manufacturers  have  made  attachments  for  the 
use  of  operators  having  one  hand  only.  We  have 


144  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

seen  such  an  operator  handle  the  modified  ma- 
chine with  satisfactory  results.  We  have  found 
that  slight  modification  of  other  machines  per- 
mits assigning  their  operating  and  controlling 
parts  to  the  remaining  limbs  of  the  workers,  and 
thus  makes  possible  their  successful  handling  by 
injured  operators.  Any  kind  of  an  adjustment 
or  adaptation  may  be  not  only  useful  in  its  par- 
ticular field,  but  may  also  form  a  missing  link  in 
an  invention  in  an  entirely  different  field.  We 
will  gladly  take  all  data  sent  us  and  make  them 
immediately  useful  to  those  working  on  the  train- 
ing of  the  injured  soldiers  in  all  countries.  We 
have  found  it  most  efficient  to  think  of  all  ac- 
tivity in  terms  of  motions  and  decisions. 
Through  more  than  thirty  years  of  work  in  mo- 
tion study  we  have  facilities  that  make  it  possi- 
ble to  analyse  all  data  into  terms  of  motion  econ- 
omy, and  thus  to  make  them  useful  with  the  least 
waste  in  transmission  or  handling  time. 

This  work  of  helping  the  crippled  soldiers  by 
teaching  them  to  make  the  most  of  their  motion 
possibilities  should  be  the  special  contribution  of 
the  engineer  in  the  field  of  social  betterment. 
The  opportunities  for  such  work  to-day  are  espe- 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  145 

eially  large  because  of  the  great  war,  but  the 
methods  that  we  now  advise  and  use  because  of 
the  great  pressure  will  be  available  at  all  times. 
Through  the  reclamation  service,  if  we  may  so 
call  it,  that  we  are  using  for  the  war  cripples 
to-day,  we  are  introducing  a  method  that  will 
never  become  unavailable  or  unnecessary. 

We  beg  every  member  of  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  to  co-operate  in  this 
work,  with  us  and  with  our  friends  abroad,  who 
are  waiting  to  pass  on  the  data  to  those  who  need 
it  so  sorely.  It  is  a  work  that  is  both  timely 
and  permanent.  The  need  is  sudden  and  new, 
but  the  data  will  be  useful  forever. 

DISCUSSION 

PROFESSOR  L.  M.  WALLACE  :  It  is  indeed  grati- 
fying that  such  an  able  investigator  as  Mr.  Gil- 
breth  has  consented  to  devote  time  and  effort  to- 
ward solving  the  problem  of  providing  for  the  in- 
struction of  those  disabled  by  the  European  war. 
That  large  numbers  of  young  men  of  the  highest 
type  are  being  crippled  for  life  is  indeed  as  dis- 
tressing as  that  so  many  are  losing  their  lives  in 
this  great  world  calamity.  It  is  my  conviction 


146  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

that  it  is  just  as  noble  an  undertaking  to  attempt 
to  provide  suitable  means  of  preparing  the  dis- 
abled for  useful  vocations  as  it  is  to  attempt  to 
stop  the  terrible  conflict  or  to  provide  means  of 
first  aid.  Indeed,  it  is  a  greater  thing  than  many 
realise,  because  it  will  mean  untold  benefit  to 
thousands  now  deprived  of  those  avenues  of  ac- 
tivity to  which  they  have  been  accustomed.  It 
will  mean  the  fitting  for  useful  vocations  of  thou- 
sands, who  otherwise  would  be  dependents  upon 
society,  which  is  always  a  greater  burden  to  the 
one  so  afflicted  than  to  those  of  society  who  bear 
the  expense  of  such  disability.  I  therefore  hope 
Mr.  Gilbreth  and  his  associates  may  achieve  much 
and  that  the  members  of  this  Society  will  rally 
to  his  support  by  extending  encouragement,  help- 
ful suggestions  and  material  assistance  in  the 
form  of  thought,  labour,  and  money,  if  desired. 

EDWARD  VAN  WINKLE  :  There  is  no  question 
but  what  the  adoption  of  a  machine  to  a  crippled 
soldier  or  a  man  without  arms  or  legs  is  the  duty 
of  the  mechanical  engineer.  I  remember  seeing 
the  driver  of  a  speed  car,  a  man  without  arms, 
travel  over  a  hundred  miles  an  hour  in  a  machine 
especially  designed  for  him.  The  steering  gear 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          147 

of  the  machine  was  adapted  with  shoulder  yokes 
and  the  rest  of  the  apparatus  was  operated  by  his 
feet.  I  saw  him  go  from  high  speed  forward  to 
high  speed  backward  inside  of  50  ft.,  and  he  had 
a  record  of  108  miles  an  hour.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  there  are  a  number  of  instances  of  that  kind 
in  which  with  special  machines  cripples  have  been 
enabled  to  emulate  those  with  full  faculties. 

W.  HERMAN  GREUL  inquired  whether  Mr.  Gil- 
breth  had  outlined  any  standard  method  of  re- 
porting these  instances  which  he  could  use  in  his 
tabulations.  He  wondered  whether  he  had  al- 
ready tabulated  the  information  which  he  de- 
sired, which  would  be  very  helpful  in  aiding  the 
members  to  contribute. 

DR.  YEAGER,  in  his  discussion,  said,  as  a  physi- 
cian, he  had  been  interested  in  cripples  for  a  good 
many  years,  and  in  the  course  of  his  work  he  saw 
the  necessity  for  providing  means  of  occupation 
for  many  of  these  cripples.  Some  three  years 
ago  he  opened  a  school  for  the  training  of  men 
who  had  been  maimed  or  injured  or  who,  through 
some  disease,  were  incapacitated  from  active 
work.  In  this  school  as  patients  were  men  six- 
teen up  to  thirty-five,  who  were  taught  reed  work 


148  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

of  all  kinds,  reed  furniture  making,  rush  seating 
and  basket  making.  To  the  men  who  have  the 
use  of  one  and  one-half  hands,  and  whose  minds 
are  sufficiently  developed,  mechanical  drawing  is 
taught.  For  the  men  with  one  hand  only,  we  se- 
lected glass  mosaic  work ;  a  plan  was  devised  for 
holding  the  glass  so  that  with  the  one  hand  the 
worker  could  take  his  glass  cutter,  cut  the  piece 
of  glass  and  fit  it  into  the  pattern  he  was  making. 
We  have  taught  show  card  writing,  and  also  sil- 
versmithing. 

As  you  will  notice,  most  of  these  trades  are 
for  men  who  have  the  use  of  two  good  hands. 
Eeed  work  needs  two  good  hands.  An  encourag- 
ing feature  of  this  work  is  that  men  who  had 
never  done  any  of  this  kind  of  work  before,  men 
who  had  never  done  any  skilled  work  with  their 
hands  at  all,  would,  in  the  very  shortest  space 
of  time,  become  expert.  I  remember  one  young 
man,  a  structural  iron  worker,  had  an  injury  in 
which  he  lost  one  leg.  He  had  no  other  trade,  but 
he  came  to  the  school  and  became  an  expert  silver- 
smith; he  did  very  beautiful  work.  He  devel- 
oped into  a  very  fine  draftsman,  although  he  had 
no  home  training.  He  was  a  man  from  the  very 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          149 

lowest  circles,  but  the  surroundings,  the  beautiful 
designs  that  we  gave  him,  developed  in  him  a  de- 
sire for  creating  beautiful  things,  and  he  became 
a  very  skilled  craftsman. 

Another  case  was  that  of  a  young  man  who  was 
born  with  his  hands  in  an  abnormal  position,  ren- 
dering them  practically  useless.  We  taught  him 
show  card  writing.  He  held  his  pencil  in  his  left 
hand,  and  he  was  able  to  draw  and  make  letters 
very  well.  Another  young  man,  whose  right 
hand  was  paralysed,  just  had  sufficient  power  to 
hold  his  paper  and  pen,  to  do  mechanical  draw- 
ing. 

A  man  who  had  paralysis  in  both  legs,  and  who 
needed  two  crutches,  as  both  his  legs  dangled 
under  him  in  a  very  unseemly  fashion,  learned 
the  trade  of  chair  caning,  and  during  the  sum- 
mer vacation  he  managed  to  get  the  contract  for 
a  large  club  which  needed  several  hundred  chairs, 
and  this  cripple  engaged  ten  able  bodied  men  to 
work  for  him. 

A  boy  with  a  very  bad  deformity  of  the  hip 
needed  two  crutches  to  go  about  the  workshop, 
but  notwithstanding  this  he  was  able  to  work 
very  well. 


150  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

The  work  at  this  school  is  being  done  in  the 
City  of  New  York.  It  is  the  only  school  of  its 
kind  in  the  country,  and  whereas  we  have  not  at- 
tempted to  get  the  men  into  work  where  ma- 
chinery is  required,  we  feel  that  we  are  filling  a 
definite  place  in  the  work  that  we  have  done. 

MR.  HANAU  :  When  radium  was  discovered  it 
was  thought  to  be  good  for  anything,  for  every- 
thing, for  tuberculosis,  for  cancer,  and  for  almost 
everything.  The  same  remark  applies  to  moving 
pictures.  If  you  consider  the  moving  picture, 
however,  you  must  always  keep  in  mind  that  it  is 
a  perspective.  In  the  second  place,  you  must 
keep  in  mind  that  the  movements  are  not  all  in 
plane,  so  that  they  are  very  deceiving.  To  repre- 
sent the  three  dimensions  by  photographs,  you 
have  to  take  them  from  the  three  sides,  that  is, 
the  front,  side  and  back  projections.  Then  you 
can  combine  a  movement  which  will  be  followed 
up  very  accurately.  While  this  method  is  very 
good  for  efficiency,  I  do  not  think  it  is  of  very 
much  value  for  just  the  purpose  of  this  paper. 

In  working  out  data  for  members  and  other 
parts  of  the  body  for  crippled  soldiers,  or  maimed 
persons,  one  must  be  very  careful.  Such  data 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          151 

cannot  be  represented  only  by  a  perspective  pic- 
ture, although  perspective  pictures  are  very  val- 
uable in  shop  practice. 

F.  ZUB  NEDDEN:  A  few  weeks  ago  Mr.  Gil- 
breth  showed  me  a  novel  improvement  of  his 
method,  giving  the  means  for  taking  motion 
studies  in  the  tri-dimensional  way.  For  this  pur- 
pose, Mr.  Gilbreth  first  photographs  a  tri-dimen- 
sional net  of  white  lights,  he  then  removes  the  net, 
places  the  workman  in  position,  and  makes  mo- 
tion studies.  By  this  way  he  can  conceive,  espe- 
cially if  he  makes  photographs  stereoscopically, 
exactly  the  place  every  motion  in  space  occurs. 
This  would  meet  the  objection  raised  by  Mr. 
Hanau. 

H.  E.  RESSELER  gave  an  instance  of  a  mechan- 
ical device  made  recently  in  one  of  our  hospitals 
in  New  York  City.  A  young  girl  had  a  form  of 
tetanus  and  by  removing  the  muscles  of  the  lower 
jawbone,  and  making  a  device  with  a  spring,  to 
be  wound  up  just  like  one  would  wind  up  a  clock, 
fastening  it  to  the  jaw  and  running  it  over  the 
head,  the  jaw  was  kept  in  constant  motion. 
After  about  three  weeks  the  device  was  taken  off. 
It  was  surprising  to  note  how  the  muscles  of  the 


152  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

inferior  maxillary  had  developed.  The  girl  was 
then  put  to  chewing  gum,  and  the  development  of 
the  muscles  of  the  lower  jawbone  was  continued. 

JAMES  GIBBONS:  The  work  proposed  to  be 
carried  out  in  Europe  with  a  view  to  aiding  crip- 
pled soldiers  should  hold  a  very  important  lesson 
for  us  in  this  country,  because  it  seems  it  is  an 
attempt  to  approach  the  efficiency  question  from 
another  point  of  view  than  that  which  we  are 
accustomed  to.  There  is  a  tendency  I  think  on 
the  part  of  the  efficiency  engineer  to  pay  more  at- 
tention to  the  man  of  efficiency  and  to  a  certain 
extent  discard  the  less  efficient  man,  and  a  good 
deal  of  the  opposition  to  efficiency  methods  which 
no  doubt  exists  in  the  minds  of  many,  and  es- 
pecially of  workmen,  is  due  to  the  feeling  that 
the  men  naturally  less  efficient  will  be  sacrificed 
to  a  great  extent  to  those  more  efficient. 

The  fortunes  of  Europe  are  forcing  upon  men 
the  necessity  of  taking  care  of  their  less  efficient 
fellows. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  working  public 
and  from  the  point  of  the  good  of  the  country  as 
a  whole,  this  is  perhaps  the  real  foundation  on 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER  153 

which  we  should  build  on  efficiency  efforts  — 
from  the  bottom  up  rather  than  from  the  top 
down ;  and  I  think  we  would  be  making  a  great 
mistake  if  with  our  own  prosperity  and  our  own 
good  fortune  in  this  country  we  should  not  give 
our  careful  attention  to  what  is  being  done  in 
Europe  and  watch  carefully  for  the  results  which 
will  come  from  this  effort  to  raise  the  efficiency 
of  those  who  are  naturally  inefficient. 

W.  N.  POLAKOV  :  The  paper  by  Mr.  Gilbreth  is 
of  great  importance,  not  only  for  the  European 
problem  of  the  near  future,  but  for  that  in  the 
United  States,  which  is,  so  to  speak,  permanent, 
because  industrial  accidents  happen  and  will  hap- 
pen in  this  country,  although  probably  in  dimin- 
ishing proportion.  It  is  well  known  to  us  how 
much  money  is  being  paid  to  the  crippled  sol- 
diers of  former  wars,  although  if  provision  of 
some  kind  had  been  made  in  this  country  they 
could  have  been  put  to  productive  work  and  not 
be  a  burden  on  the  country,  but  be  productive 
members  of  society ;  but  aside  from  that  there  was 
a  question  raised  here  whether  it  is  in  the  domain 
of  an  engineer  to  look  into  this  matter.  In  my 


154  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

opinion,  it  is  most  emphatically  so,  and  I  think 
we  all  owe  Mr.  Gilbreth  thanks  that  he  raised 
this  question  in  our  own  Society. 

The  case  of  the  crippled  soldier  is  nothing  but 
using  the  triple  expansion  human  body  as  a  com- 
pound, or  something  less  than  that,  as  it  were, 
and  therefore  it  is  a  problem  of  engineering,  and 
of  the  works  manager  to  adapt  these  conditions, 
or  the  men  to  the  conditions,  so  that  they  will  be 
useful.  It  is  not  so  much  the  question  of  the 
selection  of  the  man  for  the  particular  work,  as 
the  adaptation  of  the  available  man  to  the  work 
which  is  to  be  done,  whether  the  man  is  crippled 
or  not. 

As  to  the  instruments  devised  by  Mr.  Gilbreth, 
I  have  watched  and  studied  them  in  actual  use,  in 
the  New  England  Butt  Co.'s  laboratory,  although 
the  details  were  too  complicated  to  be  explained 
in  a  short  talk.  The  point  of  importance  is  that 
the  motion  shall  be  studied  in  order  to  save  the 
waste  motions  and  find  out  in  what  industrial 
processes  certain  limbs  and  certain  parts  of  the 
body,  certain  muscles,  are  used. 

In  a  factory  where  wearing  apparel  is  sewn, 
the  legs  are  absolutely  unnecessary,  as  the  ma- 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          155 

chines  are  driven  by  a  motor.  In  many  other  in- 
dustries, when  we  consider  it  necessary  to  employ 
able-bodied  men,  we  are  doing  a  great  injustice  to 
those  who  are  crippled,  and  more  than  that,  we 
manifest  our  own  lack  of  understanding.  We  do 
not  want  legs  for  the  man  who  is  working  with 
his  brains,  and  vice  versa  for  the  messenger  boy 
it  is  not  necessary  for  him  to  have  two  hands. 
For  a  telegraph  operator  two  arms  or  two  hands 
are  entirely  unnecessary,  and  many  other  ex- 
amples could  be  cited. 

ALVIN  Louis  SCHALLER  :  I  think  that  one  of 
the  points  ought  to  be  emphasised  that  Mr.  Gil- 
breth  brought  out  in  his  paper,  and  that  is  the 
psychic  state  in  which  the  man  must  be  brought 
before  he  can  be  made  successful.  The  only  rea- 
son why  a  cripple  is  so  successful  is  because  he 
has  a  will  and  a  determination  to  devise  his  own 
methods  for  doing  things. 

I  believe  that  one  of  the  largest  problems  that 
Mr.  Gilbreth  had  to  confront  when  he  began  to 
reclaim  these  crippled  soldiers  was  to  get  them 
into  a  state  of  mind  where  they  could  forget  the 
discouragements  into  which  they  had  probably 
fallen  after  receiving  their  wounds  and  realising 


156  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

that  they  would  have  to  go  through  life  in  a  crip- 
pled* condition. 

ROBERT  THURSTON  KENT,  who  presented  the 
paper,  said :  Last  August  I  spent  a  day  at  Mr. 
Gilbreth's  laboratory  and  saw  what  he  had  de- 
veloped in  the  four  years  since  I  was  associated 
with  him,  and  Mr.  Gilbreth  converted  me  to  a 
number  of  things  that  I  believed  were  absolutely 
impossible  two  or  three  years  ago,  and  I  would 
suggest  that  all  who  are  skeptical  as  to  the  value 
of  the  moving  pictures  of  stereoscopic  photo- 
graphs and  the  three  dimensions  visit  Mr.  Gil- 
breth's laboratory,  where  they  will  learn  a  great 
deal. 

The  problem  of  efficiency  or  scientific  manage- 
ment is  to  point  out  the  job  at  which  a  man  is  a 
first-class  man  and  put  him  in  it. 

Mr.  Gilbreth  has  a  standard  method  of  tabulat- 
ing. He  lays  out  a  chart  divided  into  different 
groups,  as  explained  in  his  paper  —  the  head 
group,  the  different  arm  groups,  etc.,  subdividing 
them  into  the  forearm,  the  hand,  thumb,  and  so 
on.  By  means  of  his  photographs  he  finds  out 
the  relevant  amount  of  time  each  member  of  the 
body  is  employed  on  a  given  job;  he  plots  them 


FOR  THE  CRIPPLED  SOLDIER          157 

on  a  vertical  scale  as  to  time.  Striking  a  curve 
through  these  ordinates,  he  can  see  the  relative 
importance  of  each  particular  member  of  the  body 
in  doing  certain  work. 

The  particular  method  employed  is  to  take 
these  charts  and  see  if  these  motions  of  all  the 
parts  cannot  be  eliminated  altogether,  so  that  in 
the  case  of  only  a  right  hand  motion,  the  motion 
of  the  left  hand  is  gotten  rid  of,  making  it  all  a 
job  on  which  the  right  hand  only  is  employed. 


THE  PEACTICE  OF  SCIENTIFIC 
MANAGEMENT l 

I  Scientific  Management  is  simply  management 
L-kased  upon  measurement.  Being  thus  based, 
it  must  be  not  only  the  result  of  measurement, 
but  also  subject  at  every  stage  of  its  development 
to  accurate  measurement,  and  it  must  be  willing 
to  abide  by  the  results  of  such  measurement. 
The  time  has  passed  when  Scientific  Management 
can  be  content  with  basing  its  claim  to  being  effi- 
cient upon  the  perfection  of  its  theory.  To-day 
such  management  must  submit  to  accurate  meas- 
urement of  its  practical  results.  It  must  demon- 
strate its  value  in  practice. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  this  value  of  Scientific 
Management  must  show  itself  not  only  able  to 
supply  those  needs  of  the  employer  and  the  em- 
ploy6  that  are  supplied  by  any  worth  while  sys- 
tem of  management,  but  also  its  ability  to  supply 
needs  that  other  types  of  management  cannot 
supply,  and  its  ability  to  meet  and  solve  all  prob- 
lems raised  by  its  peculiar  and  characteristic 

i  Presented  at  The  Wisconsin  Commercial  and  Industrial 
Congress,  1916. 

158 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  159 

methods.    Any  type  of  management  that  is  worth 
rating  as  efficient 

1.  Must  give  to  the  employer  a  return  on  his 
investment  and  to  the  employe  a  fair  living 
wage. 

2.  Must  insure  sanitary,  healthful  and  stand- 
ard working  conditions. 

3.  Must  insure  a  fair  state  of  permanent  co- 
operation between  employer  and  employe*. 
This  would  normally  result  from  the  main- 
tenance of  1  and  2. 

It  is  then  the  first  duty  of  Scientific  Management 
to  establish,  maintain  and  insure  these  funda- 
mental working  conditions.  This  it  is  bound  to 
do,  because  in  actual  practice  the  maintenance  of 
the  entire  system  and  the  enjoyment  of  its  ad- 
vantages depend  upon  the  employes  being  satis- 
fied with  their  pay;  working  conditions  being 
standard;  and  co-operation  existing  between  all 
members  of  the  organisation.  For  example,  A 
is  a  worker  in  a  plant  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. It  is  usually  not  necessary  for  him  to 
work  harder  than  he  would  in  a  plant  under 
traditional  management,  but  he  must  work  in  ac- 
cordance with  specific  instructions,  and  in  order 


I    * 


• 


160  APPLIFD  MOTION  STUDY 

that  he  be  willing  to  do  this,  and  to  fulfil  the  re- 
quirements exactly,  it  is  necessary  that  he  be  paid 
more  than  the  usual  wage  for  that  work  in  that 
vicinity.  If  he  is  not,  in  spite  of  the  other  ad- 
vantages of  working  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, such  as  better  teaching,  more  chance  for 
^advancement,  a  chance  to  specialise,  etc.,  he  is 
apt,  because  of  the  natural  inertia  of  human  na- 
ture, to  choose  to  work  in  a  plant  where  more 
"  free  and  easy  "  and  unstandardised  conditions 
are  the  rule. 

•to 

Working  conditions  in  a  scientifically  managed 
plant  must  be  standardised,  and  standard  condi- 
tions must  be  the  best  possible,  in  order  that  the 
high  output  which  makes  possible  the  high  pay 
may  be  made  possible.  A  is  working  under  fore- 
man By  whose  bonus  depends  upon  the  success  in 
earning  a  bonus  of  the  workers  under  him.  His 
instructions  and  materials  come  from  men  whose 
bonuses  are  also  connected  with  his  bonus. 
Therefore,  the  condition  of  co-operation  is  main- 
tained not  only  because  of  the  theoretic  necessity 
for  such  co-operation,  but  also  because  of  the 
practical  necessity  for  such  co-operation,  if  all  are 
to  receive  the  high  pay  desired. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  161 

Besides  providing  constantly  the  three  prime 
necessities  for  satisfactory  relations  between  em- 
ployer and  employe,  Scientific  Management  sup- 
plies to  the  employe  five  other  benefits  that,  while 
connected  with  the  three  prime  necessities,  are 
not  an  essential  part  of  them  under  ordinary 
management.  The  first  of  these  is  the  opportu- 
nity for  an  increasing  wage.  While  Scientific 
Management  may  be  operated  to  some  extent  with 
day  rate  or  with  piece  rate,  it  is  customary,  under 
practically  all  forms  of  such  management,  to  in- 
troduce, at  some  stage  in  the  development,  some 
type  of  pay  that  allows  of  the  worker's  increasing 
his  pay  to  the  limit  of  his  working  capacity.  The 
entire  system  is  built  upon  the  idea  that  it  is  to 
the  advantage  of  every  one  that  output  be  in- 
creased to  the  greatest  extent  possible.  In- 
creased output  means  increased  wages.  There 
are  two  questions  that  have  been  frequently  asked 
just  here.  The  first  is,  "Is  increased  output 
beneficial  to  every  one?  "  The  second  is  "  Will 
the  worker  receive  his  fair  share  of  the  increased 
profit?  "  The  first  of  these  questions  has  been 
answered,  as  you  well  know,  by  the  economists, 
and  thinking  people  to-day  have  no  doubt  but 


162  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

that  the  world  profits  by  any  increase  in  output. 
The  answer  to  the  second  question,  that  is,  the 
decision  as  to  the  proper  division  of  the  profits 
from  these  outputs,  is  a  question  that  must  ulti- 
mately be  answered  by  the  economists  also. 
Managers  have  answered  it  as  best  they  could. 
Scientific  Management  answers  by  saying  that 
the  division  must  be  such  that  the  cost  of  the 
changes  made  by  the  new  type  of  management 
are  first  deducted  from  the  profits,  and  that  these 
are  then  divided  approximately  equally  between 
employer  and  employe".  Naturally,  the  ideal  di- 
vision is  such  as  will  pay  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  system,  and  satisfy  both  employer  and  em- 
ploye. The  division  is  usually,  in  practice,  satis- 
factory, as  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  strikes,  and 
by  the  satisfaction  of  stockholders,  as  well  as 
management  and  employe's  with  the  system  itself. 
The  average  employe"  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment receives  a  wage  that  increases 

1.  With  his  willingness  to  conform  to  instruc- 
tions. 

2.  With  his  increased  skill  and  intelligence. 

3.  With  the  resulting  formation  of  efficient 
habits. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  163 

4.  With  his  natural  strength,  ambition  and  en- 
durance. 

The  second  benefit  that  Scientific  Management 
confers  upon  its  users  is  regularity  of  employ- 
ment. The  manager  realises  early  that  it  is  too 
expensive  a  proposition  to  train  a  man  to  become 
an  efficient  member  of  the  organisation,  and  then 
lose  him  because  of  lack  of  work,  or  poor  ar- 
rangement of  the  dull  and  busy  periods.  Va- 
rious methods  of  providing  regular  employment 
are  used.  Typical  of  these  are 

1.  Introducing  a  new  type  of  work,  for  which 
equipment  and  workers  are  suited,  that  may 
be  followed  during  the  otherwise  idle  period. 

2.  Increasing,  through  advertising,  salesman- 
ship, etc.,  a  demand  for  one  staple  product 
that  will  allow  of  specialising  upon  the  pro- 
duction of  that  during  light  running  time. 

3.  Teaching  every  employe  various  allied  types 
of  work,  so  that  he  may  be  shifted  with  ease 
to  equalise  the  stress  and  to  evenise  exag- 
gerated seasonal  labour  requirements  of  the 
working  periods.     This  in  no  wise  conflicts 
with  the  idea  of  functionalising  the  work 
and  developing  individuality  in  the  workers, 


164  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

but  simply  provides  various  outlets  for  the 
trained  activity.  The  careful  study  of  psy- 
chology makes  it  possible  for  us  to  teach 
workers  who  are  to  perform  these  allied  ac- 
tivities, so  that  their  habits  in  one  line  are 
a  help  rather  than  a  hindrance  in  another. 
It  is  always  best  practice  to  insure  that  the 
lines  of  activity  are  similar  in  their  demands 
for  motion  cycles,  because  of  the  enormous 
saving  in  habit  formation. 
4.  Another  method  is  by  providing  that  in  dull 
times  highly  paid  specialised  workers  be  re- 
tained even  if  necessary  to  have  them  placed 
on  less  remunerative,  but  more  available 
work.  For  example,  that  foremen  in  a  ma- 
chine shop  be  put  back  on  the  machines. 
Such  workers  are  paid  what  is  in  effect  a  re- 
tainer while  on  the  lower  priced  work,  which 
brings  their  earnings  up  to  their  usual 
amount.  In  this  way  the  acquired  skill  and 
intelligence  is  kept  in  the  organisation,  and 
the  outlay  is  reckoned  as  a  good  investment. 
A  third  benefit  of  Scientific  Management  is  the 
better  placement  of  the  employe's.  The  ordinary 
type  of  management  has  no  method  of  scientific- 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  165 

ally  selecting  the  workers.  The  hiring  is  done  by 
each  foreman  or  perhaps  rarely  by  a  man  or 
woman  who  has  a  "  knack  at  it,"  "  a  fine  sense  of 
intuition,"  or  "  a  deep  knowledge  of  human  na- 
ture." If  the  placement  is  successful,  well  and 
good.  If  not,  the  employe  is  summarily  dis- 
charged and  another  selection  made.  Now,  as 
has  been  already  said,  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment there  would  be  an  enormous  loss  in  a  poor 
placement  and  in  training  an  employe  who  is  not 
fitted  for  the  work.  This  supplies  a  very  practi- 
cal incentive  to  a  careful  examination  of  the  ap- 
plicant and  a  successful  placement.  It  leads  to 
the  transformation  of  such  jobs  as  that  of  messen- 
ger boy  into  training  stations  or  observation  sta- 
tions, where  a  young  applicant  may  be  studied  be- 
fore his  line  of  work  is  finally  determined.  It 
leads  also  to  the  utilisation  of  various  tend- 
ing jobs  in  the  plant  as  such  observation  sta- 
tions. 

The  fourth  benefit  is  closely  connected  with  the 
third.  It  is  the  opportunity  for  continuous  ad- 
vancement. All  organisations  of  any  type  that 
can  in  any  wise  be  rated  as  really  efficient  aim  to 
hold  their  workers  by  offering  a  chance  for  defi- 


166  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

nite  advancement,  but  there  is  not  usually  a  care- 
fully determined  path  by  which  such  advance- 
ment takes  place.  We  have  always  believed  that 
devising,  using  and  maintaining  a  scientifically 
determined  plan  for  promotion  is  a  most  impor- 
tant element  in  successful  management.  We 
have,  therefore,  made  such  a  plan  which  we  call 
"  the  three  position  plan,"  by  which  every  mem- 
ber in  the  organisation  is  regarded  constantly  in 
relation  to  the  three  following  positions, 

a.  The  position  that  he  last  held  in  the  organi- 
sation. 

t.  The  position  that  he  at  present  holds  in  the 
organisation. 

c.  The  next  position  that  he  will  hold. 
In  order  that  he  may  keep  his  present  position,  he 
must  see  that  the  position  below,  that  he  has  pre- 
viously held,  is  adequately  filled,  that  is,  he  must 
be  responsible  for  the  teaching  of  his  successor, 
and,  moreover,  in  the  advance  to  the  next  position 
he  must  learn  the  work  done  there  thoroughly, 
that  is,  he  must  obtain  adequate  teaching  from 
the  holder  of  that  position.  Each  worker  is, 
then,  constantly  a  learner  as  well  as  a  teacher, 
and  is  a  working  member  constantly  of  three 


'SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  167 

groups.  In  one  of  these  he  is  head  man,  in  the 
other  middle  man,  in  the  third  end  man.  In 
practice  this  results  in  more  rapid  advancement, 
in  more  steady  advancement,  and  in  more  ra- 
tional advancement. 

The  fifth  benefit  has  already  been  indicated  in 
the  fourth.  This  is  the  teaching  supplied.  To- 
day, when  it  is  everywhere  recognised  that  the 
problem  of  management  is  largely  a  problem  of 
teaching,  and  that  psychology  is  indispensable  to 
efficient  teaching,  it  is  difficult  to  realise  that 
less  than  four  years  ago  this  idea  was  greeted  as 
radical,  and  that  even  to-day  some  of  the  fore- 
most advocates  of  the  best  known  type  of  Scien- 
tific Management  consider  that  entirely  too  much 
emphasis  is  being  laid  on  the  psychological  side. 
This  audience,  however,  because  of  its  peculiar 
training  and  experience,  will  be  swift  to  recog- 
nise that  the  great  solution  of  the  employment 
problem  and  the  management  problem,  like  the 
solution  of  most  social  problems,  lies  in  more 
education,  and  education  is  based  on  psychology, 
and  gets  its  results  from  teaching.  Because  Sci- 
entific Management  supplies  teaching  and  pro- 
vides that  every  member  of  the  organisation  be 


168  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

constantly  both  learner  and  teacher,  it  confers, 
perhaps,  its  greatest  benefit  upon  those  working 
under  it. 

The  average  student,  investigator,  or  opponent 
of  Scientific  Management  usually  is  willing,  im- 
mediately or  ultimately,  to  accept  these  claims,  or 
better,  demonstrations  of  Scientific  Management 
as  to  its  practical  value.  There  are,  however, 
two  questions,  or  objections,  according  to  the  type 
of  person  making  them,  that  are  constantly  raised 
against  Scientific  Management,  and  that  are  well 
worth  the  most  serious  consideration.  The  first 
is  the  question  of  fatigue,  and  the  second  is  the 
^Question  of  monotony.  The  student  asks 

1.  Does    Scientific   Management   increase  fa- 
tigue?    , 

2.  Does  Scientific  Management  increase  monot- 


The  objector,  or  opponent,  takes  it  for  granted 
that  "  yes  "  answers  both  questions,  and  demands, 
"  What  are  you  going  to  do  about  increased  fa- 
tigue? "  and  "  What  are  you  going  to  do  about  the 
soul  killing,  grinding  monotony?"  Since  the 
milder  queries  of  the  student  and  investigator  are 
implied  in  the  strenuous  demands  of  the  oppo- 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  169 

nents,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  better  to  consider  them 
in  the  latter  more  strenuous  form. 

What  are  we,  who  practice  Scientific  Manage- 
ment going  to  do  about  increased  fatigue?  We 
will  state,  first  of  all,  that  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement fatigue  is  not  increased.  This  for  sev- 
eral reasons: 

1.  In  many  cases  fatigue  could  not  be  in- 
creased, and  the  ordinary  type  of  manage- 
ment is  already  resulting  in  the  limit  of  fa- 
tigue. 

2.  Scientific  Management  believes  undue  and 
unnecessary  fatigue  is  the  worst  form  of 
waste. 

3.  Scientific  Management  knows  that  excess  fa- 
tigue impairs  the  worker's  capacity  perma- 
nently. 

4.  Scientific  Management,  as  a  result  of  meas- 
urement alone,  knows  that  the  highest  type 
of  welfare,  which  implies  no  excess  fatigue, 
alone  makes  adequate  co-operation  possible. 

We  maintain,  then,  that  we  are  not  increasing 
fatigue ;  on  the  other  hand  that,  where  excessive 
fatigue  exists,  we  are  cutting  it  down.  Let  us 
outline 


170  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

1.  What  has  been  done. 

2.  What  is  being  done. 

3.  What  is  to  be  done. 

That  is,  let  us  review  the  past,  view  the  present, 
and  pre-view  the  future.  We  may,  perhaps,  be 
excused,  since  our  aim  at  this  time  is  to  bring 
before  you  the  practice  of  Scientific  Management, 
for  referring,  in  the  remainder  of  this  chapter, 
largely  to  our  work,  in  that  we  can  here  with  the 
greatest  ease  give  you  concrete  examples  of  ac- 
tual working  practice.  We  realised  early  that 
fatigue  is  of  two  kinds, 

1.  Necessary  fatigue. 

2.  Unnecessary  fatigue. 

that  unnecessary  fatigue  is  inexcusable,  that  only 
that  amount  of  necessary  fatigue  must  be  per- 
mitted in  a  day  from  which  the  worker  can  re- 
cover during  the  interval  from  the  close  of  one 
working  day  to  the  opening  of  the  next.  Nat- 
urally, the  most  efficiency,  as  well  as  the  most  hu- 
manitarian method  is  to  eliminate  all  unneces- 
sary fatigue  possible,  and  to  provide  for  such  effi- 
cient rest  periods  that  recovery  from  necessary 
fatigue  may  take  place  in  the  shortest  amount  of 
time,  and  with  the  greatest  amount  of  satisfac- 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  171 

tion,  possible.1  We  start,  then,  always,  by  mak- 
ing a  fatigue  survey  of  the  particular  plant  or 
problem  in  hand,  and  determining,  roughly  if 
necessary,  but  as  accurately  as  possible,  what  fa- 
tigue exists,  and  what  proportion  of  it  is  neces- 
sary and  what  unnecessary.  It  is  no  easy  thing 
to  decide,  what  fatigue  exists,  or  what  fatigue  is 
necessary,  but  one  is  safe  to  presume  always  that 
a  large  amount  of  fatigue  does  exist,  and  that  an 
astounding  proportion  of  it  is  unnecessary. 
There  are  some  very  simple  signs  of  un- 
necessary fatigue ;  such  as  lack  of  chairs  or  rests 
of  any  kind,  crowding,  lack  of  light,  lack  of  ven- 
tilation, lack  of  safety  devices.  The  lacks  them- 
selves suggest  the  first  facts  in  the  necessities 
be  supplied.  We  have  found  the  chair  an  ad- 
mirable device  upon  which  to  specialise,  since  it 
is  visible  and  tangible,  and  its  supply,  where  it 
is  lacking,  usually  goes  a  long  way  towards  help- 
ing the  organisation  to  think  in  terms  of  fatigue 
elimination.  We  adjust  all  work  possible  so  that 
it  may  be  done  part  of  the  time  sitting  and  part 
of  the  time  standing.  We  supply  chairs,  foot- 
rests  and  armrests;  supply,  or  change,  the  posi- 
i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York. 


172  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

tion  of  the  working  equipment  itself ;  use  gravity ; 
wherever  possible  consider  effect  of  direction  of 
motion  on  momentum  and  inertia;  and,  finally, 
make  an  intensive  study  of  the  motions  being 
used,  in  order  to  derive  and  standardise  more  effi- 
cient and  less  fatiguing  motions.  We  gather  the 
existing  devices  into  a  little  group  called  a 
museum,  and  add  photographs  of  devices  that 
might  supply  needs,  taken  from  other  places. 
We  co-operate  with  the  Posture  League  and  the 
Safety  First  people,  and  other  existing  organisa- 
tions that  lessen  the  amount  of  pioneer  work 
necessary  to  be  done.  We  also  attack  the  prob- 
lem of  work  intervals  and  rest  intervals,  their 
length  and  their  relation  to  one  another. 
Along  with  this  we  start  the  Home  Reading 
Box,1  which  is  a  method  of  putting  literature  of 
all  kinds  in  the  hands  of  all  members  of  the  or- 
ganisation interested.  This  is  a  means  of  mak- 
ing the  rest,  or  the  recovery,  periods  more  effi- 
cient. All  of  these  things  have  been  done,  and 
are  being  done,  and  along  with  this  we  are  to-day 
making  intensive  study  of  activity  and  its  re- 
sulting fatigue.  These  studies  are  made  by  the 
i  See  "  Fatigue  Study,*'  Chap.  IV. 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  173 

chronocyclegraph  method,  and  by  making  Simul- 
taneous Motion  Cycle  Charts  as  a  result  of  micro- 
motion  study.  Work  in  this  line  has  received  a 
great  impetus  through  the  work  being  done  for 
soldiers,  crippled  in  all  countries  through  the 
great  war.  With  the  peculiar  type  that  will  now 
come  in  enormous  numbers  into  the  industries, 
the  fatigue  problem  becomes  more  than  ever  im- 
portant. Where  the  old  problem  was  to  make  it 
possible  to  do  more  work  the  new  problem  is, 
often,  to  make  it  possible  to  do  any  work  at  all. 
As  for  future  work  to  be  done  upon  fatigue,  it 
will  lie  along  the  same  lines  as  the  past  and  pres- 
ent development. 

It  must  be  realised  that  fatigue  is  no  problem 
that  can  be  solved  by  hit  or  miss  methods.  Some- 
thing, and  a  great  deal  better  than  nothing,  can 
be  done  by  any  method  of  eliminating  fatigue. 
Rest  periods,  no  matter  though  they  be  not  of  the 
right  length  or  scientifically  distributed,  are  bene- 
ficial. Chairs,  though  not  scientifically  con- 
structed, are  far  better  than  no  chairs  at  all.  We 
have  received  recently  most  helpful  and  construct- 
ive criticism  from  a  professor  interested  in  pos- 
ture, who  says  that  the  average  working  chair 


174  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

has  an  unscientifically  constructed  back.  We  re- 
plied to  him  that,  in  most  cases,  we  are  so  glad 
to  get  any  chair  at  all,  and  so  delighted  when  we 
have  a  chair  whose  height  is  prescribed  by  accu- 
rate measurement  that  we  have  been  unwilling  to 
dampen  the  enthusiasm  of  our  co-operators  by 
criticising  the  backs  severely.  Physiologists  and 
psychologists  must  co-operate  in  the  work  of  solv- 
ing the  fatigue  problem.  However,  we  feel  that 
we  have  accurate  methods  of  measurement  to 
put  at  their  disposal,  and  that  the  derivation  of 
the  necessary  data  for  ideal  fatigue  eliminating 
and  recovery  providing  devices  must  be  a  matter 
of  time  and  careful  application  only.  What  does 
Scientific  Management  do  about  fatigue  in  prac- 
tice? It  eliminates  all  unnecessary  fatigue  that 
it  can  discover.  It  provides  the  rest  intervals 
according  to  the  best  information  available,  and 
at  the  most  scientifically  determined  intervals  at 
hand.  It  also  provides  means  for  making  these 
rest  intervals  efficient  and  profitable. 

We  turn  now  to  the  question  of  monotony. 
What  do  we  mean  by  saying  that  work  is  monot- 
onous? In  the  ordinary  use  of  the  term,  un- 
doubtedly, that  it  is  tiresome,  that  it  has  same- 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  175 

ness  and  great  lack  of  variety,  and  that  its  re- 
sult is  a  growing  and  a  deadening  fatigue.  No 
one  has  realised  more  than  those  who  devote  their 
lives  to  the  practice  of  the  science  of  management 
that  monotony  is  a  very  real  and  a  very  serious 
evil,  that  it  exists  in  many  kinds  of  work,  and 
that  it  must  be  lessened  or  removed,  if  the  work 
is  to  be  truly  profitable  and  satisfying.  Now  the 
natural  and  the  right  method  of  attacking  the 
problem  is  to  review  first,  the  solution,  or  pro- 
posed solutions,  of  those  who  have  previously  con- 
sidered it.  There  have  been  many  of  these.  We 
might,  perhaps,  state  five. 

1.  Insistence  that  there  be  no  standard  method 
of  doing  the  work  with  a  hope  that  the  un- 
standardised  conditions  would  render  the 
work  less  tiresome. 

2.  "Leaving   the   initiative   to   the  worker." 
This  is  simply  another  form  of  refusing  to 
standardise  the  method,  with  the  hope  that 
the  unstandardised  conditions  will  spur  the 
worker  to  invent  a  method  for  himself  that 
will  be  of  interest  to  him  because  he  has 
been  himself  the  inventor. 

3.  Shifting  the  worker  from  one  type  of  work 


176  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

to  another,  with  the  hope  that  the  variety 
in  the  work  done  will  rest  the  worker  and 
will  make  the  work  interesting. 

4.  Moving  the  worker  from  one  work  place  to 
another.     This  is  a  remedy  applied  usually 
by  the  worker  himself,  who  leaves  one  plant 
or  locality  when  he  becomes  tired  of  it  and 
goes  on  to  another  in  the  hope  of  thus  find- 

^^     ing  the  longed  for  interest. 

5.  Welfare  work  of  different  kinds,  which  aims 
I           to  supply  the  interest  lacking  in  the  work 
^     itself. 

Now  each  of  these  proposed  remedies  is  sure 
to  prove  futile,  either  immediately  or  in  the  long 
run,  for  the  following  reasons.  The  lack  of  a 
standard  method  is  no  insurance  of  variety,  as 
the  individual  worker  must,  if  he  acquire  any 
skill,  gradually  acquire  also  a  standard  method 
for  doing  the  work,  that  is,  a  method,  which  is, 
at  least,  a  standard  for  him.  Leaving  the  initia- 
tive to  the  worker  by  no  means  insures  that  he 
will  take  the  initiative.  If  he  is  not  naturally 
of  the  inventive  type,  he  is  far  more  apt  to  copy 
the  method  of  his  next  neighbour,  which  is  as 
likely  to  be  inefficient  as  efficient.  Shifting  from 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT 

one  kind  of  work  to  another,  while  it  may  for  the 
time  being  interest  a  certain  type  of  worker,  is 
as  likely  to  disgust  another  well  marked  type  that 
has  a  decided  hatred  for  changing  work  or  work-  ^ 
ing  conditions.  Moving  from  place  to  place, 
though  usually  indulged  in  only  by  those  who 
crave  excitement,  is  again  likely  to  disgust  those 
who  dislike  change,  and  welfare  work,  while  ex 
cellent  in  itself  and  by  far  the  best  of  these  advo 
cated  remedies,  has  small,  if  any,  preventiv 
value. 

The  commendable  feature  of  these  attempts  is, 
of  course,  the  feeling  that  underlies  them,  that,  if 
the  worker  is  to  accomplish  the  greatest  amount 
of  and  the  best  work,  monotony  must  be  elimi- 
nated and  the  work  made  interesting.  This  feel- 
ing may  be  promoted  by  a  humanitarian  interest 
in  the  worker's  welfare,  or  simply  by  a  desire  to 
get  the  most  out  of  the  worker.  In  any  case, 
whatever  this  underlying  cause,  the  results  are 
to  be  commended. 

The  great  difficulty  and  danger  lies  in  the  fact 
that  the  fundamental  assumption  at  the  base  of 
all  the  remedies  suggested  is  wrong.  This 
sumption  is,  whether  those  who  propose  or  use 


178  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

'  the  remedies  recognise  it  or  not,  that  monotony 
and  habit  are  in  many  ways  related.  There  is  a 
fundamental  confusion  between  "  monotonous  " 
and  "  habitual."  This  confusion  we  all  recognise 
when  it  is  pointed  out  to  us,  yet  it  is  strange  that 
so  few  have  ever  noted  this  confusion  that  really 
lies  at  the  base  of  the  discussion,  now  reaching 
everywhere,  as  to  the  "  monotony  "  of  work,  and 
its  relation  to  the  new  types  of  management.  We 
know,  of  course,  that  anything  that  is  habitual  is 
performed  with  comparative  ease  and  dexterity. 
We  know  that  habit  simplifies.  We  know  that  it 
is  the  aim  of  all  who  desire  to  become  efficient  in 
any  line  to  reduce  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
daily  routine,  in  fact  all  of  their  activity,  to 
habitual  action.  To  the  psychologist,  habit, has 
always  been  most  important  as  a  field  of  study, 
and  little  by  little,  all  interested  in  industry  have 
also  come  to  appreciate  the  great  force  that  lies 
in  habit  and  its  wonderful  power  for  good  or  evil, 
as  it  is  properly  or  improperly  directed.  We 
realise  that  habit  cuts  down  fatigue,  that  it  is 
easier  to  do  anything  that  has  become  a  habit, 
and  that  it  tires  one  less.  We  realise  that  habit 
cuts  out  waste,  that  it  allows  us  to  accomplish 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  179 

more  in  less  time,  and  thus  gives  us  more  free 
time  to  devote  to  other  activities.  Yet  we  sel- 
dom, either  in  conversation  or  in  more  careful 
thinking,  fail  to  confuse  habit  and  monotony. 
We  do  not  for  a  moment  believe  that  our  every- 
day acts  of  dressing  and  eating  and  walking  are 
tiresome,  or  lack  variety,  because  we  do  them  the 
same  way  every  time.  Yet,  when  we  come  to  the 
industries,  and  note  habits  of  work  there,  and 
find  industrial  pioneers  arguing  for  standardised 
habits,  we  immediately  cry  "  Monotony,"  and  the 
endless  confusion  begins. 

Now,  when  we  attempt  to  get  down  to  the  fun- 
damentals of  the  matter  we  find  that  the  habitual 
becomes  monotonous  only  when  there  is  no  ele- 
ment of  interest  in  what  is  being  done,  and  when 
the  higher  mental  powers  that  should  be  set  free 
by  habit,  because  they  have  nothing  to  do,  go 
drearily  over  and  over  the  mechanical  acts  that 
demand  nothing  of  real  attention.  The  monot- 
ony  of  housework,  or  farming,  or  different  kinds 
of  industrial  work  in  the  plant  lies  not  in  the  fact 
that  the  work  is  habitual,  but  that  it  is  uninter- 
esting. The  problem  is  not  to  break  up  habits, 
>but  to  supply  interests. 


18g 


APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 


There  can  be  no  doubt,  when  one  thinks  the 
matter  over  carefully  and  logically,  that  the 
greatest  good  to  all  concerned  can  come  only 
when  every  process  possible  is  reduced  to  a  habit. 
Methods  must  be  standardised,  that  is,  the  best 
possible  method  must  be  found,  prescribed,  and 
become  habitual  with  every  worker  doing  the 
work.  This  is  the  first  requirement.  The  sec- 
ond is  that  the  element  of  interest  be  added  to 
the  work  and  be  so  incorporated  that  the  work 
be  never  done  without  interest.  This  interest 
element  may  be  added 

1.  By  making  the  work  itself  interesting. 

2.  By  making  the  results  of  the  work  interest- 
ing, so  that  the  mind  dwells  on  the  results 
while  the  work  is  being  done  ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  interest  may  become  part  of  the  work 
either  directly  or  indirectly. 

The  great  means,  in  Scientific  Management,  by 
.which  work  is  standardised  and  interest  added  to 
is  motion  study.  The  close  relations  between 
motion  study  and  standardisation  is  based  largely 
upon  an  appreciation  by  motion  study  of  the  im- 
portance of  habit.  Motion  study  starts  always 
with  an  analysis  of  practice,  and  practice  is  only 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  181 

another  name  for  existing  habits  of  doing  work. 
The  first  step  is  to  make  the  record  of  the  places, 
uses,  and  elements  of  existing  habits.  These  are 
studied  in  the  greatest  detail.  With  the  cause 
for  every  existing  condition  carefully  determined, 
we  take  up  the  variables  of  the  worker,  the  vari- 
ables of  the  surroundings,  equipment  and  tools, 
the  variables  of  the  motion  itself,  and  in  each  case 
set  down,  in  as  great  detail  as  is  possible,  ex- 
actly what  the  habit  is,  and  to  what  stage  of 
habit  formation  the  activity  has  been  carried  in 
each  case.  From  these  very  careful  tests,  and 
with  the  check  of  the  most  accurate  timing  possi- 
ble, we  determine  the  ideal  habit  for  the  particu- 
lar work  to  be  done.  This  is  simply  another 
name  for  standardising  working  conditions  and 
methods,  and  the  type  of  worker  best  suited 
the  work  in  hand.  Having  determined  these 
ideal  habits,  the  final  step  in  reconstructing  the 
process  is  to  decide  exactly  how  much  may  be 
made  habit  and  exactly  what  must  be  left  to  de- 
cision. The  process  then  becomes  a  series  of  de- 
cisions and  motions.  The  motions  cover  the 
habit  element.  The  decisions  go  a  long  way  to- 
wards providing  for  the  interest. 


182  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

Let  us  suppose  now  that  any  type  of  work, 
formerly  considered  monotonous,  is  being  done 
according  to  the  methods  prescribed  by  motion 
study,  and  let  us  see  exactly  how  the  element  of 
monotony  has  been  eliminated  through  motion 
study  results.  The  method  being  used  is  as 
"  habitual "  as  is  possible,  that  is  to  say,  the 
body  is  performing  the  same  activity  by  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  same  method  every  time,  with  the 
least  possible  amount  of  active  attention  on  the 
work  in  hand.  There  is  a  careful  allowance  for 
fatigue.  There  is,  therefore,  no  possibility  of  the 
body's  becoming  unduly  tired.  In  the  meantime, 
the  active  attention  and  all  the  higher  power  of 
the  mind  are  free,  free  for  the  planning  of  de- 
tails, free  to  plan  new  work,  or  free  to  do  what 
they  please.  It  would  be  much  if  motion  study 
could  claim  only  that  it  freed  attention  and  these 
other  higher  powers  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  did  the  older  work  methods,  but  the  chief 

""claim  of  motion  study  lies  not  in  this  freeing  of 
the  mind,  but  in  the  fact  that  it  actually  supplies 
work  for  the  mind  to  do. 

""^Just  what,  then,  are  these  provisions  for  men- 
tal stimulus? 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  183 

1.  Motion    study    shows    the   worker    a   new 
method  of  attack.     The  study  has  been  done 
with   the  worker's  co-operation.     He  has, 
through  the  study,  learned  how  a  motion 
problem  is  attacked,  and  he  can  apply  the 
same  method  of  attack  to  the  minutiae  of 
motions  in  his  own  work  that  the  manage- 
ment has  not  had  the  time  or  the  money  to 
investigate. 

2.  The  instruction  card  by  which  he  works  pro- 
vides related  items  of  interest  that  occupy 
his  attention  and  stimulate  to  investigation. 

3.  The  suggestion  box  that  accompanies  the  in* 
stallation  of  newer  methods  provides  an  in 
centive  for  invention  that  makes  him  want  / 
to  devise  better  methods.  ,— I 

4.  The  new  promotion  plan,  already  mentioned, 
that    accompanies   motion    study    changes 
means  that  successful  investigation  will  lead 
to  advancement  to  the  head  of  the  function, 
to  superintendence  of  some  sort,  or  into 
the   motion   study  or  time  study   depart- 
ment. 

5.  The  field  of  motion  study  and  time  study  is 
in  need  of  trained  investigators  in  every  in- 


184  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

dustrial  line,  and  this  need  may  be  filled  by 
any  skilled  worker  in  any  line  of  work. 
6.  Fatigue  study,  as  already  said,  offers  a  great 
field  of  investigation.  This  field  can  never 
be  investigated  properly  until  skilled 
workers  in  every  line  of  activity  record  in- 
dividually and  scientifically  their  own  expe- 
rience. 

These  are  all  direct  elements  of  interest  in  the 
work  itself. 

As  for  the  things  that  make  the  work  indi- 
rectly interesting,  such  are 

1.  The  home  reading  box,  which  stands  ready 
with  interest  and  amusement  when  working 
hours  are  over. 

2.  The  high  pay  or  shorter  hours  gained  by  the 
increase  in  output  without  extra  fatigue, 
and  all  the  outside  interests  that  the  high 
pay  and   short  hours   and   the  conserved 
strength  and  vitality  make  possible. 

To  sum  up.     Scientific  Management,  therefore, 

jprst  shows  that  the  problem  of  monotony  is  fun- 

/jaamentally  different  from  its  usual  interpreta- 

f  tion,  and,  second,  solves  the  real  problem  of  mo- 

I  notony  by  supplying  that  interest  that  is  the 


SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  185 

natural  eliminator  of  monotony.  The  close  rela- 
tionship between  fatigue  study  and  monotony 
study  must  have  become  apparent.  Neither 
problem  can  be  successfully  solved  without  a  si- 
multaneous consideration  and  solution  of  the  ac- 
companying problem. 

r~- 

In  conclusion,  Scientific  Management  may  not 
be  ideal  in  theory  nor  perfect  in  practice,  but  all 
that  it  claims  to  be  is  management  that  not  only 
is  the  result  of  measurement,  but  that  is  con- 
stantly willing  to  submit  its  results  to  measure- 
ment, because  this  is  its  basis.  It  is  a  part  of 
the  things  that  are  real  and  lasting,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  it  and  practice  in  it  should  be  a  part  of 
the  working  equipment  of  every  man  or  woman 
who  wishes  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  world's 
work.  It  is  doing  much  to-day  that  is  not  ap- 
parent. Its  direct  product,  the  comparatively 
few  factories  in  which  any  so-called  system  is 
used  and  the  comparatively  few  men  who  are 
earning  their  living  through  teaching  the  theory 
or  installing  the  practice,  are  unimportant.  The 
by-products  are  many  and  important.  Men  and 
women  everywhere  are  realising  that  the  remote 
science  is  really  the  near  at  hand  measurement; 


186  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

that  life  consists  of  motions  and  decisions;  that 
satisfaction  and  interest,  as  well  as  efficiency, 
come  from  thinking  in  terms  of  elements  of  mo- 
tions; that  the  great  waste  of  the  world  lies  in 
unnecessary  fatigue;  that  "deadening  monot- 
ony "  is  eliminated  through  interest. 


THE  THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF 
PROMOTION  l 

An  adequate  system  of  promotion  is  the  solu- 
tion not  only  of  holding  employes  in  an  organisa- 
tion, but  also  of  the  employment  problem. 

There  is  much  emphasis  to-day  upon  the  proper 
selection  of  employes,  and  many  and  elaborate 
systems  have  been  undertaken  for  a  scientific,  or 
near-scientific,  placement.  These  are  not  in  any 
wise  to  be  criticised,  for  the  selection  of  the  indi- 
viduals comprising  any  organisation  is  impor-  £ 
tant,  and  any  plan  that  will  cause  the  employ- 
ment manager  to  plan  his  duties  carefully  and  to 
give  each  decision  on  the  fortunes  of  others  care- 
ful consideration  is  to  be  commended.  It  must 
be  realised,  however,  that  even  more  important 
is  holding  and  helping  these  employe's  after  they 
have  been  selected,  and  providing  an  adequate 
systematised  plan  of  advancement  for  them.  In 

i  Reprinted  from  "  The  Annals  "  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  May,  1916. 
Publication  No.  1001, 

187 


188  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  Three  Position  Plan  of  Promotion  we  have 
not  only  the  true  and  proved  answer  to  the  prob- 
lem of  promotion,  but  also  the  means  by  which 
efficient  placement  becomes  almost  automatic, 
and  a  supply  of  desirable  applicants  for  any  va- 
cant position  is  constantly  available.  No  sys- 
tem of  placement  can  hope  to  succeed  unless  such 
a  supply  of  applicants  is  available. 
We  wish  to  emphasise  then  three  points: 

1.  The  necessity  of  attracting  desirable  applicants. 

2.  The  necessity  of  holding,  fitting,  and  promoting 
those  already  employed. 

3.  The  interdependence  of  these  two. 

We  have  never  known  a  better  friend  of  the 
worker  than  Mr.  James  Mapes  Dodge,  and  he 
was  wont  to  emphasise  and  demonstrate  the  bene- 
fit not  only  to  the  employe,  but  also  to  the  or- 
ganisation of  holding  the  co-operating  employe, 
and  the  great  and  needless  loss  to  the  organisa- 
tion, to  the  worker,  and  to  society  in  a  constant 
change  of  the  personnel  of  the  organisation. 
Now,  no  organisation  can  hope  to  hold  its  mem- 
bers that  does  not  consider  not  only  the  welfare 
of  the  organisation  as  a  whole,  but  also  the  wel- 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      189 

fare  of  the  individuals  composing  that  organisa- 
tion. 

The  Three  Position  Plan  of  Promotion  con- 
siders each  man  as  occupying  three  positions  in 
the  organisation,  and  considers  these  three 
positions  as  constantly  changing  in  an  up- 
ward spiral,  as  the  man  is  promoted  from  the 
lowest  position  that  he  occupies  and  into  the  po- 
sition next  higher  than  the  highest  position  that 
he  occupies.  The  three  positions  are  as  follows : 
first,  and  lowest,  the  position  that  the  man  has 
last  occupied  in  the  organisation;  second,  the 
position  that  the  man  is  occupying  at  present  in 
the  organisation ;  third,  and  highest,  the  position 
that  the  man  will  next  occupy.  In  the  third  po- 
sition the  worker  occupies  the  place  of  the 
teacher,  this  position  being  at  the  same  time  occu- 
pied by  two  other  men,  that  is,  by  the  worker 
doing  the  work,  who  receives  little  or  no  instruc- 
tion in  the  duties  of  that  position  except  in  an 
emergency,  and  by  the  worker  below  who  is  learn- 
ing the  work.  In  the  second  position  the  worker 
is  actually  in  charge  of  the  work,  and  is  con- 
stantly also  the  teacher  of  the  man  next  below 
him,  who  will  next  occupy  the  position.  He  is 


190  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

also,  in  emergencies,  a  learner  of  the  duties  of  his 
present  position  from  the  man  above  him.  In  the 
first  position  the  worker  occupies  the  place  of 
learner,  and  is  being  constantly  instructed  by  the 
man  in  the  duties  of  the  position  immediately 
above. 

Naturally  a  plan  like  this  demands  a  close  co- 
ordination of  all  positions.  This  is  provided  for 
through  the  master  promotion  chart.  This  chart 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  man  in  charge  of  promotion. 
It  is  slightly  different  for  each  organisation.  It 
consists  of  a  schematic  arrangement  of  all  posi- 
tions in  the  organisation,  so  arranged  as  to  pro- 
vide for  lines  of  most  rapid  advancement,  along 
the  various  functions  and  subfunctions,  under 
which  the  measured  functional  management  by 
which  we  operate,  works.  The  great  advantage 
of  such  a  chart  is  that  it  makes  possible  visualis- 
ing the  complete  problem  of  the  organisation's 
needs  in  teaching  and  preparing  its  members. 
The  direct  product  of  this  is  that  the  man  in 
charge  of  promotion  sees  clearly  the  needs  and 
the  means  of  filling  them,  the  demand  and  the 
supply.  The  important  by-product  is  the  grad- 
ual evolution  of  permanent,  rapid,  direct  paths 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      191 

of  promotion.  This  means  the  abolishment  of  the 
"  blind  alley  "  job,  that  is,  a  position  into  which 
some  member  of  the  organisation  drifts  with  no 
chance  for  advancement.  Another  by-product  of 
this  chart  is  the  fact  that  the  promotion  head, 
the  promotion  manager,  or  chief  of  promotion,  as 
he  has  been  variously  called,  can  arrange  for 
shifting  or  transferring  the  worker  easily,  if  he 
sees  that  he  has  been  improperly  placed,  or,  if  he 
develops  abilities  along  some  unexpected  line. 
This  is  often  the  case  under  this  type  of  manage- 
ment where  there  is  great  opportunity  for  the  de- 
velopment of  latent,  as  well  as  apparent,  abilities. 
This  master  promotion  chart  is  the  great  educa- 
tive force  to  the  management  as  to  the  impor- 
tance of  proper  promotion. 

The  interests  of  the  individual  worker  and  his 
education  as  to  the  importance  of  promotion  are 
carried  on  through  the  individual  promotion 
charts.  Upon  these  the  records  of  each  and  every 
member  of  the  organisation  are  separately  kept. 
These  sheets  are  often  called  "fortune  sheets," 
and  it  is  this  aspect  of  them  that  is  of  peculiar 
interest  to  the  psychologist.  When  a  worker  be- 
comes an  interested,  or  particularly  co-operative 


192  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

or  efficient  member  of  the  organisation  he  is  called 
into  the  department  in  charge  of  advancement  or 
promotion,  and  given  one  of  these  fortune  sheets. 
Upon  it  is  shown  his  present  position,  and  he  and 
the  man  in  charge  outline  together  his  possible 
and  probable  line  of  advancement.  The  sheet 
then  becomes  his  fortune  map,  or  fortune  sched- 
,ule.  The  projected  line  of  promotion  is  outlined 
in  green,  and  upon  it  are  placed  the  dates  at 
which  it  is  hoped  he  may  reach  the  various  stages 
of  advancement.  At  set  times  the  worker  and 
the  promotion  chief,  or  one  of  his  helpers,  meet, 
and  the  line  of  actual  progress  of  advancement 
of  the  worker  is  traced  upon  the  map  in  red,  with 
the  dates  of  achieving  the  various  positions.  The 
two  then  consult  as  to  existing  conditions,  the 
special  reading  and  studying  necessary  for  fitting 
for  the  new  positions,  possible  changes,  or  better- 
ments. The  direct  product  of  this  is  that  the 
worker  understands  what  he  is  doing,  gets  expert 
advice  for  greater  progress,  and  realises  that 
there  is,  and  must  be,  co-operation  between  him 
and  the  promotion  department  for  the  good  of  all 
concerned.  The  by-products  are  equally,  or 
more,  important.  One  is  that  the  worker  is  glad 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      193 

to  impart  all  information  that  would  be  of  help 
to  the  organisation  as  to  his  history  and  anteced- 
ents, his  home  and  other  social  conditions  out- 
side the  plant,  that  help  or  hinder  his  plans  of 
preparing,  ambitions,  etc.  It  is  common  prac- 
tice in  these  days  to  present  the  applicant  with 
blanks  to  be  filled  in  with  all  this  information. 
We  use  such  blanks  in  selecting  applicants, 
always  with  the  proviso  that,  if  the  appli- 
cant shows  any  disinclination  to  fill  out  such 
parts  of  the  blank  as  tell  of  his  ambitions  or 
other  details,  which  he  may  consider  confidential, 
he  be  not  required  to  do  so.  This  information 
has  been  invariably  volunteered,  when  the  for- 
tune map,  or  schedule,  is  understood.  Naturally 
the  applicant  must  furnish  such  information  as 
will  show  his  ability  and  reliability;  but,  as  we 
will  see  later,  these  are  so  supplemented  by  data 
obtained  through  other  sources  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  ask  for  information  usually  consid- 
ered confidential  before  it  is  volunteered.  The 
second  by-product  of  these  fortune  sheets  is  di- 
rectly connected  with  the  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem of  getting  constantly  a  group  of  desirable  ap- 
plicants from  which  to  select  more  wisely.  Thus, 


194  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

when  the  worker  looks  at  his  fortune  sheet,  and 
understands  the  three  position  plan  of  employ- 
ment, he  recognises  that  he  must  train  some  one 
to  take  his  position  before  he  can  hope  to  be 
most  rapidly  advanced.  Naturally  he  first  looks 
around  in  the  organisation  to  see  who  is  avail- 
able, for  it  is  always  desired  that  those  within 
the  organisation  be  advanced  first.  However,  if 
no  such  person  is  available,  he  reviews  his  entire 
acquaintance,  and  all  possible  sources  for  new 
workers,  in  order  that  he  may  obtain  the  most 
desirable  person  easy  to  train  into  that  position. 

•MMft^ 

It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  long  upon  the  ad- 
vantages of  this  system  for  holding  members  al- 
ready in  the  organisation.  No  worker  who  is 
constitutionally  able  to  become  a  permanent  mem- 
ber of  an  organisation  will  wish  to  change,  if  he 
is  receiving  adequate  pay  and  has  ample  oppor- 
tunity for  advancement,  especially,  if,  as  here, 
he  is  a  member  of  a  group  where  it  is  to  the  ad- 
vantage—  more  than  that  —  actually  to  the 
selfish  interest,  of  every  member  to  push  all 
higher  members  up,  and  to  teach  and  fit  others 
to  advance  from  below.  Inseparably  associated 
with  this  is  the  fact  that  any  worker  will  be  ready 


v^rea( 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      195 

and  glad  to  enter  an  organisation  where  such 
conditions  exist,  and  a  desirable  applicant  will 
automatically  present  himself,  when  needed,  at 
the  direct  request  of  some  one  who  knows  his  par- 
ticular fitness  for  the  job,  and  desires  him  to 
have  it.  This  selecting  of  the  worker  by  the 
worker  is  real  democracy.  An  organisation  built 
thus  has  proved  to  be  the  most  satisfying  to  both 
management  and  workers. 

Now  there  are  various  questions  that  may  arise 
concerning  this  subject,  that  it  is  well  to  answer 
here. 

1.  What  becomes  of  the  workers  who  find  ex- 
actly the  positions  that  suit  them,  and  have 
no  desire  to  advance? 

The  answer  to  this  is  that,  if  a  worker  finds  such 
a  position,  he  is  retained  in  it,  and  that  others 
who  go  beyond  it  are  trained  by  him  in  the  work 
of  that  position  until  they  know  enough  about  it 
to  advance  to  the  next  higher  grade.  This  often 
happens,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  workers  who 
prefer  positions  entailing  comparatively  little  re- 
sponsibility, and  who,  arriving  at  some  work  that 
satisfies  them,  and  that  involves  but  slight  re-  \ 
sponsibility,  choose  to  make  that  particular  work 


196  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

a  life  vocation.  If,  as  is  seldom  the  case,  a  sec- 
ond worker  is  found  who  desires  to  remain  in 
the  same  position,  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to 
place  such  a  contented  specialist  in  another  or- 
ganisation, as  trained  and  satisfied  expert  work- 
ers and  teachers  are  all  too  rare. 

2.  //  promotion  is  constant,  are  not  men  con- 
stantly promoted  or  graduated  out  of  the 
organisation  f 

The  answer  to  this  is  "  Yes,  and  always  to  waiting 
and  far  better  positions." 

3.  What  becomes  of  such  well  "known  "Wind 
alley"  jobs  as  that  of  elevator  or  errand 
boy? 

These  positions  are  transformed  into  training  sta- 
tions or  schools.  Through  them  the  young 
worker  is  put  in  touch  with  various  lines  of  ac- 
tivity in  the  organisation  and  his  possibilities, 
capabilities  and  tastes  are  noted.  Tending  jobs 
under  this  type  of  management  are  also  so  used 
as  training  stations.  The  new  work  for  crippled 
soldiers,  which  is  now  occupying  so  much  of  our 
attention,  is  also  furnishing  a  means  of  filling 
such  "  blind  alley  "  jobs.  A  position  that  might 
be  deadening  for  a  young,  ambitious  boy,  or  for  a 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      197 

progressive  worker,  might  prove  the  salvation  of  a 
maimed,  or  crippled,  worker  who  might  otherwise 
become  an  idle,  unproductive,  and  worst  of  all,  a 
discouraged  and  unhappy  member  of  the  com- 
munity. 

4.  How  can  the  close  "  human  touch  "  that  is 
essential  to  this  system  of  promotion  be 
maintained  in  a  large  organisation? 
We  maintain  this  spirit  through  what  we  call  the 
"  Godfather  Movement."  This  is  especially  suc- 
cessful where  there  are  many  young  workers. 
Some  older  man  in  the  organisation,  preferably 
in  the  same  department,  or  interested  in  the  same 
line  of  work,  is  made  the  godfather  of  several 
young,  or  inexperienced,  workers,  and  keeps  in 
touch  constantly  with  their  progress.  We  call 
this  man  "  the  Godfather  "  in  all  foreign  coun- 
tries, where  the  relation  between  godparent  and 
godchild  is  an  unusually  close  one,  and  is  very 
similar  to  the  sort  of  relation  supposed  to  exist 
here  between  members  of  the  same  family.  It 
resembles,  perhaps,  in  this  country  more  the  "  Big 
Brother  "  or  "  Big  Sister  "  Movement  now  so  pop- 


ular. 


5.  What  are  the  actual  results  of  the  workers 


198  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

already  employed  losing  this  system  of  pro- 
motion? 

They  are  most  satisfactory  in  every  case.  In 
organisations  where  we  have  installed  this  sys- 
tem as  a  part  of  our  plan  of  management  we  have 
seen 

a.  Office  and  messenger  boys  pass  through  five  posi- 
tions in  one  year. 

b.  A  messenger  boy  become  head  storekeeper  in  three 
years. 

c.  A  mechanic  become  night  superintendent  in  four 
years. 

d.  A  foreman  become  superintendent  in  two  years. 

e.  A  receiving  clerk  become  head  production  clerk  in 
three  years. 

f.  A  stenographer  pass  through  five  positions  to  mo- 
tion study  assistant  in  one  year. 

g.  A  stenographer  pass  through  five  positions  to  as- 
sistant chief  of  the  three  position  plan  in  one  and 
one-half  years. 

h.  An  office  boy  become  assistant  purchasing  agent  in 

three  years. 
i.  A  half  time  apprentice  become  foreman  in  three 

and  one-half  years, 
j.  A  stenographer  become  head  of  the  department  of 

graphical  presentation  of  statistics. 
k.  A  labourer  become  superintendent  in  nine  years. 

and  other  cases  too  numerous  to  mention,  many 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      199 

advancing  in  spite  of  predicted  dire  failure  of  the 
plan  of  selection,  placement  and  promotion.  The 
greatest  good  is,  perhaps,  not  the  individual  ad- 
vancement, but  the  increased  interest  and  zeal 
of  all  the  workers  under  this  plan. 

6.  What  are  the  practical  results  on  supply  of 
applicants  and  on  better  placement? 

In  our  experience  we  have  never  failed  when  us- 
ing this  plan  of  promotion  to  supply  all  needs  of 
the  organisation  almost  immediately  with  most 
desirable  and  efficient  workers.  Every  member 
of  the  organisation  working  under  this  plan  has 
become  an  active  and  successful  "  employment 
bureau  man." 

7.  What  are  the  advantages  of  this  whole  plan 
to  the  man  in  charge  of  the  function  of  em- 
ployment? 

He  benefits  by  this  plan,  perhaps,  more  than  any 
one  else.  He  comes  in  close  touch  with  every 
member  of  the  organisation.  It  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  every  member  to  tell  him  exactly  which 
individuals  he  thinks  had  better  follow  him, 
whether  these  are  inside  or  outside  the  organisa- 
tion. Imagine  for  a  moment  that  you  are  such  a 
chief.  A  comes  in  and  says,  "Mr.  Blank,  I 


200  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

should  like  0  to  follow  me  in  my  position."  B 
comes  in  and  says,  "  I  should  like  0  to  follow  me 
in  my  position."  C  comes  in  and  says,  "Mr. 
Blank,  I  should  like  0  to  follow  me  in  my 
position."  Naturally  you  would  recognise  the 
wisdom  of  getting  better  acquainted  with  0. 
Or,  perhaps,  you  suggest  to  A,  "  I  think  that  M 
would  be  a  good  man  to  follow  you,"  and  A  says, 
"  No,  I  think  I  had  better  have  some  one  else." 
You  suggest  M  also  to  B  and  C,  who  reply  some- 
what along  similar  lines.  There  may  be  nothing 
fundamentally  wrong  with  M,  but  the  line  you 
have  planned  will  probably  not  receive  as  much 
co-operation  as  it  should,  and,  in  any  case,  there 
is  something  there  worth  investigating.  Again, 
a  worker  comes  to  you  and  says,  "  Mr.  Blank,  I 
know  a  man  who  is  not  in  this  organisation  who 
would  be  just  the  person  to  follow  me.  You 
know  there  is  no  one  available  just  now,  as  the 
man  below  me  is  satisfied  with  his  job."  Here 
follow  particulars  as  to  the  desired  man's  edu- 
cation, training,  etc.,  which  act  as  the  supplemen- 
tary data  before  mentioned.  The  recommender 
is  given  a  blank  form  of  "  recommendation  "  to 
fill  out  for  filing,  whether  or  not  the  proposed 


THREE  POSITION  PLAN  OF  PROMOTION      201 

man  is  hired.     This  naturally  leads  to  the  ques- 
tion 

8.  Can  any  part  of  this  plan  of  promotion  be 

used  without  the  other  parts? 
The  answer  is  "  Yes  "  and  "  No."  "  No,"  if  the 
desired  results  are  to  be  obtained  in  full,  since 
the  entire  system  is  interrelated  and  correlated 
with  the  complete  plan  of  Measured  Functional 
Management.  "Yes,"  in  that  the  fundamental 
ideas  underlying  this  plan  can  undoubtedly  be 
worked  out  in  many  ways.  The  immediate  suc- 
cess of  this  plan  is  fostered  by  a  carefully  de- 
vised set  of  forms  and  charts  and  other  devices 
for  visualising  the  possibilities  of  individual  suc- 
cess that  have  stood  the  test  of  time  and  use. 
The  ultimate  success  of  this  plan  depends  upon 
the  principles  x  that  underly  it,  giving  every  man 
a  square  deal,  a  maximum  chance  for  co-opera- 
tion, advancement  and  prosperity,  in  other  words, 
the  opportunity  for  simultaneous  individual  and 
social  development. 

i  See  "  The  Psychology  of  Management,"  Sturgis  &  Wal- 
ton, New  York  City. 


i 


THE  EFFECT  OF  MOTION  STUDY  UPON 
THE  WORKERS  * 

Motion  study  makes  all  activity  interesting. 
While,  at  first  thought,  this  fact  may  not  seem 
of  great  importance,  in  reality  it  is  the  cause  of 
many  of  the  far-reaching  results  obtained  through 
motion  study.  Motion  study  consists  of  analys- 
ing an  activity  into  its  smallest  possible  elements, 
and  from  the  results  synthesising  a  method  of 
performing  the  activity  that  shall  be  more  ef- 
ficient,—  the  word  "  efficient  "  being  used  in  its 
highest  sense. 

The  process  of  motion  study  is  such  as  to  in- 
terest the  worker.  While  undoubtedly  some  suc- 
cess could  be  made  of  motion  study  through  a 
trained  observer  merely  watching  the  worker,  we 
find  it  of  utmost  importance  and  mutually  advan- 
tageous from  every  standpoint,  to  gain  the  full 
and  hearty  co-operation  of  the  worker  at  once, 

i  Reprinted  from  "  The  Annals "  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Political  and  Social  Science,  Philadelphia,  May,  1916. 
Publication  No.  1000. 

202 


THE  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WORKERS      203 

and  to  enlist  him  as  a  co-worker  in  the  motion 
study  from  the  moment  the  first  investigation  is 
made.  Our  methods  of  making  motion  study  are 
by  the  use  of  the  micromotion,  simultaneous  mo- 
tion cycle  chart,  and  chronocyclegraph  methods. 
All  make  it  imperative  that  the  worker  shall  un- 
derstand what  is  being  done  and  why,  and  make 
it  most  profitable  to  every  one  that-  the  worker 
shall  be  able,  as  well  as  willing,  to  help  in  the 
work  of  obtaining  methods  of  least  waste  by 
means  of  motion  study.  While  the  process  of 
making  motion  and  time  studies  through  the  use 
of  the  cinematograph,  the  microchronometer  and 
the  cross-sectioned  screen  have  been  so  reduced  in 
cost  as  to  make  them  indispensable  even  from  the 
cost  standpoint,  the  process  is  made  even  more 
economical  when  the  worker,  or  the  observed  man, 
does  his  best  work,  and  endeavours  to  take  a 
part  of  active  initiative  in  deriving  the  motion 
standards.  We  find  in  our  practice  that  the 
worker  is  only  too  glad  to  do  this.  In  fact,  it  is 
usually  he,  oftener  than  the  observer,  who  cries 
out,  "  Wait  a  moment  till  this  is  done  in  the  best 
way  possible,"  or  "Wait  a  moment,  please,  I 
know  a  way  that  I  believe  is  easier."  Similarly, 


204  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

when  using  the  chronocyclegraph  device;  the 
worker  is  not  only  interested  in  the  electric  lights 
and  their  various  paths  and  orbits  of  dots  and 
dashes,  but  is  most  anxious  that  these  paths  shall 
be  those  of  the  greatest  skill  and  the  fewest  num- 
ber of  motions  possible. 

The  various  methods  used  with  these  various 
types  of  apparatus,  which  are  usually  new  to  the 
worker,  present  problems  in  psychology  which 
are  interesting  to  the  worker  as  well  as  to  the 
observer.  The  worker  is  quick  to  note  that,  with 
the  new  conditions  attending  the  measuring  work, 
his  own  process  varies  for  a  short  time  at  the 
beginning  from  his  unusual  habits,  because  of  the 
entering  of  the  variables  of  the  apparatus  and 
the  strange  conditions  that  it  involves.  He  is 
quick  to  notice,  also,  that  this  effect  of  strange- 
ness soon  disappears,  and  that  he  then  works  ex- 
actly in  accordance  with  his  normal  method. 
This  period  of  strangeness,  far  from  being  a  dis- 
advantage, is,  on  the  contrary,  often  a  great  ad- 
vantage. The  worker  is  almost  sure  to  revert  to 
the  former  habit,  and  an  investigator  or  observer 
often  gains  valuable  clues  not  only  to  excellent 
standards,  but  to  necessary  methods  of  teaching 


THE  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WORKERS      205 

those  standards,  particularly  with  emphasis  on 
eliminating  interference  of  many  wrong  habits  ac- 
quired in  trade  learning  prior  to  conscious  effort 
for  motion  economy.  It  is,  therefore,  clear  that 
during  the  period  of  making  motion  studies  the 
effect  of  them  upon  the  worker  is  educative  to  the 
highest  degree,  for  not  only  does  he  become  inter- 
ested in  what  he  does,  but  he  learns  to  think  of 
all  activity  in  terms  of  motions  and  elements  of 
motions.  The  by-products  of  this  are  also  impor- 
tant, as  he  is  always  able  afterwards  to  learn  new 
work  much  faster  and  with  comparatively  little 
coaching,  and  as  he  has  that  success  that  usually 
attends  the  work  of  one  who  knows  the  least 
wasteful  method  of  attack  of  learning  the  new 
problems  or  performing  the  new  task. 

The  effects  of  motion  study  are  particularly 
striking  upon  the  observer  or  the  man  actually 
making  the  studies.  This  is  true  not  only  dur- 
ing the  time  of  making  the  observation,  but  also 
during  the  time  spent  in  embodying  the  data  de- 
rived in  simultaneous  cycle  motion  charts  and  in 
motion  models.  These  motion  models,  which  are 
wire  representations  of  the  paths  of  the  motion, 
made  from  the  stereoscopic  records  derived  from 


206  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

the  chronocyclegraph  process  have  a  peculiar  ed- 
ucative value  that  is  well  embodied  in  the  follow- 
ing statement  of  a  young  engineer  who  spent  some 
time  making  motion  models  as  a  part  of  that  thor- 
ough training  for  motion  and  time  study  man 
which  we  believe  so  necessary : 

"  After  making  a  number  of  models  of  motions  I  have 
changed  from  a  scoffer  to  a  firm  believer.  I  believe  not 
only  in  their  value  as  an  aid  to  the  study  of  the  psychol- 
ogy of  motions,  but  also  as  to  their  educational  value  in 
the  teaching  of  the  motion  study  man. 

"  I  consider  them  of  the  same  value  to  the  motion  study 
man  as  is  the  model  of  an  engine  or  a  mechanical  device 
to  an  engineer.  If  the  engineer  was  to  study,  for  in- 
stance, a  railroad  engine,  and  the  only  chance  he  had  to 
study  was  to  watch  an  engine  going  by  him  at  express 
train  speed,  his  impression  as  to  the  mechanical  work- 
ing of  the  engine  would  be,  to  say  the  least,  vague. 

"  A  motion,  in  itself,  is  intangible,  but  a  model  of  a 
motion  gives  one  an  altogether  different  viewpoint,  as  it 
seems  to  make  one  see  more  clearly  that  each  motion 
leaves  a  definite  path,  which  path  may  be  subjected  to 
analysis. 

"  I  have  made  motion  studies  since  making  models,  and 
what  I  learned  from  making  the  models  has  convinced 
me  of  their  value.  In  former  motion  studies  which  I 
have  made,  my  attention  was  always  divided,  more  or 
less  equally,  between  the  direct  distance  between  the 
starting  and  finishing  points  of  the  motion,  the  equip- 


THE  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WORKERS      207 

ment,  and  the  surroundings.  I  have  found  that,  since 
seeing  a  motion,  as  represented  by  a  model,  I  am  better 
able  to  concentrate  first  on  the  motion  itself,  and  then 
upon  the  variables  which  affect  the  motion.  This  seems 
to  me  a  more  logical  method,  and  I  know  that  I  have 
had  better  results. 

"  I  believe  a  good  method  of  illustrating  how  a  motion 
model  helps  one  to  visualise  is  to  compare  it  with  the 
wake  left  by  an  ocean  liner.  When  one  stands  at  the 
stern  of  a  liner,  which  changes  its  course  often,  and 
watches  the  wake  he  can  visualise  the  changes  more 
readily  than  when  unable  to  see  the  wake." . 

It  is  interesting  to  note  here  not  only  the  in- 
terest aroused  intensively  in  the  subject  of  mo- 
tion study  itself,  but  also  extensively  in  the  corre- 
lation of  processes  in  the  industries  with  general 
processes  outside.  The  motion  study  man  is  a 
specialist  who,  because  of  his  work,  spends  a  large 
amount  of  time  in  the  close  study  of  motions,  but 
to  some  extent  this  intensive  and  extensive  in- 
terest is  aroused  in  all  those  engaged  in 
motion  study,  whether  as  observers  or  ob- 
served. 

After  the  results  of  motion  study  are  actually 
installed  the  effects  are  as  great  or  greater  upon 
those  who  work  under  the  derived  standards.  It 
must  be  understood  that  motion  study  always  im- 


208  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

plies  fatigue  study?  for  the  best  and  least  waste- 
ful results  cannot  be  obtained  otherwise,  and  that 
the  worker  who  operates  under  these  standards, 
therefore,  not  only  has  time  to  do  the  work  in  the 
best  way,  but  ample  time  for  adequate  recovery 
from  the  fatigue  of  his  work.  This  procedure 
provides  directly  for  his  physical  and  mental 
well-being.  Motion  study  lays  particular  empha- 
sis upon  this.  The  great  bogey  of  all  who  argue 
against  standardisation  is  "  the  awful  resulting 
monotony."  Now  psychology,2  as  well  as  the  re- 
sults in  actual  practice,  proves  that  monotony 
comes  not  from  performing  the  activity  the  same 
way  every  time,  but  from  a  lack  of  interest  in- 
volved in,  or  associated  withy  the  activity.  This 
interest  is  supplied  not  only  directly  by  motion 
study,  but  indirectly  by  the  other  parts  of  meas- 
ured functional  management,  such  as  devices 
for  eliminating  unnecessary  fatigue  and  for  over- 
coming necessary  fatigue. 

Besides  all  this  there  is  the  interest  aroused 
and  the  education  resulting  from  the  graphic  rep- 
resentation of  the  results  of  motion  study  data  to 

1  See  "  Fatigue  Study,"  Sturgis  &  Walton,  New  York  City. 

2  See  "  The  Psychology  of  Management,"  Sturgis  &  Walton, 
New  York  City. 


THE  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WORKERS      209 

the  worker  as  well  as  the  observer.  The  pictures 
of  the  micromotion  films  are  projected  at  the  nor- 
mal speed  of  the  moving  picture.  They  are  also 
examined  one  at  a  time.  The  chronocyclegraphs 
in  three  dimensions  are  shown  through  the  stereo- 
scope, on  the  screen,  by  means  of  the  wire  motion 
models  to  the  workers  at  the  foremen's  and  work- 
ers' meetings  and  are  there  discussed.  All  the 
traditional  knowledge  is  literally  collected,  meas- 
ured, sorted,  tagged  and  labelled.  These  data,  to- 
gether with  indisputable  measuring  methods  is 
presented  before  those  possessing  the  greatest 
craft  skill  of  the  old  methods,  and  who  can  quick- 
est actually  learn  the  new  knowledge  and  put  it 
to  use.  The  new  knowledge  is  of  no  use  to  the 
employer  without  the  co-operation  of  the  worker. 
This  fact  puts  the  relations  between  the  worker 
and  his  employer  on  a  new  basis.  They  must 
co-operate,  or  both  pay  an  awful  price.  These 
new  methods  have  demonstrated  that  there  is 
so  much  to  learn  that  the  employer  cannot  afford 
to  put  on  and  lay  off  his  employes  in  proportion 
to  the  receipt  of  orders.  He  must  solve  the  prob- 
lem of  steady  employment.  He  cannot  afford  to 
let  his  specially  trained  men  "  get  away."  This 


210  APPLIED  MOTION  STUDY 

is  of  vital  importance  in  its  effect  upon  the  mental 
condition  and  activity  of  the  worker. 

By  these  means  the  workers,  who  are  the  actual 
producers  of  the  nation,  become  familiar  in  every 
day  experience  with  motion  study  and  time  study 
instruments  of  precision  and  with  the  results  of 
their  use.  Such  knowledge  in  the  hands  of  our 
workers  is  the  means  of  their  being  able  to  take 
the  initiative  in  acquiring  greater  skill  in  all 
trades  and  in  all  life  works.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  forms  of  industrial  preparedness.  It  must 
be  emphasised  that  the  facts  concerning  motion 
study  here  stated  embody  not  only  a  program  but 
a  record.  The  actual  every  day  practice  of  mo- 
tion study  shows  these  effectslipolTtlie  worker  not 
"only  in  the  intangible  results  of  added  interest 


and  a  different  "attitude  towards  the  work,  but 
also  in  such  tangible  results  as  a  larger  number 
and  a  more  profitable  setof  suggestions  in  the 
suggestion  boxes,  better  Attended  ^nd  more  profit- 
ab^ f oremen?g_and_workers?  meetings,.. a  greater 
number  of  promotions,  more  co-operation,  more 
reading^nid  study  of  the  science^of  management, 
mid  higher  wages  earned  witk  greater  ease. 


Motion  study  has  no  right  to  claim  all  the  ben- 


THE  EFFECT  UPON  THE  WORKERS      211 

efits  that  accrue  from  measured  functional  man- 
agement,  Dul,  as  HTpUrt  uf  IM»nlBiaageme^ 
shares  in  these  benefits,  and  thus  those  who  work 
under  it  are  assured  of  unusually  high  pay,  dur- 
ing and  after  the  motion  study,  a  chance  for  pro- 
motion, physical  and  mental  well-being,  and  a  co- 
operative atmosphere  in  which  to  work.  Motion 
study  has  the  right  to  claim  as  its  own  benefits  an 
added  interest  not  only  in  the  activity  involved 
in  the  particular  work  done  in  the  office  or  plant 
or  wherever  the  work  place  may  be,  but  in  all  ac- 
tivity away  from  as  well  as  at  work.  Motion 
study  benefits  employes  and  employers,  as  well  as 
everybody  else  who  adopts  its  methods,  because 
it  makes  "  to  do/'  mean  "  to  be  interested/'  and 
to  be  interested  means  to  be  more  efficient,  more 
prosperous,  and  more  happy. 


THE  END 


A  FINAL  NOTE 

In  writing  this  volume  with  the  aim  of  elimi- 
nating waste,  we  realise  that  progress  in  general 
waste  elimination  is  always  retarded  by  the  feel- 
ing that  it  is  for  others  rather  than  ourselves.  In 
order  that  we  might  practise  what  we  preach,  we 
requested  that  this  book  be  printed  in  accordance 
with  the  forms  of  spelling  recommended  by  the 
Simplified  Spelling  Board,  New  York  City.  The 
publishers  ruled  otherwise,  and  to  change  the 
spelling  now  would  cause  delay. 

New  conditions  confront  the  world  to-day. 
These  new  conditions  demand  as  never  before 
that  savings  be  made  whenever  possible.  \Simpler 
Spelling  requires  less  time  to  learn,  saves  mo- 
tions of  writing,  typing,  setting  type  and  eye 
swing  in  reading.  It  saves  ink,  pencils,  paper, 
and  consequently  helps  save  forests.  The  sav- 
ing of  forests  in  turn  eliminates  floods.  The 
elimination  of  floods  saves  the  priceless  fertile 
soil  from  being  eroded  and  washed  to  the  seas, 
there  to  be  lost  forever,!] 

Some  of  the  greatest  scholars  in  the  English 
speaking  world  gathered  together  as  the  Sim- 

213ft 


21Sb  FINAL  NOTE 

plified  Spelling  Board  have  made  certain  stand- 
ards for  simplification  without  any  confusion  or 
loss  of  any  advantages  of  the  present  forms  of 
spelling. 

Simpler  spelling  has  been  adopted  by  over  300 
schools,  colleges  and  publishers  during  the  last 
year.  Its  adoption  is  progressing  faster  than 
is  generally  realised.  There  is  no  logical  argu- 
ment against  the  forms  recommended. 

Ignorance  and  custom  are  the  great  hindrances 
to  progress.  vEvery  possible  saving  in  time,  ma- 
terials and  fatigue  that  enables  us  to  get  more 
out  of  life  should  be  adopted.^ 

LILLIAN  M.  GILBRETH, 
FRANK  B.  GILBRETH, 

Member  Advisory  Council  Simplified 
Spelling  Board. 


INDEX 


Achievement,  need  to  know 

cause,  78 

Activities,  reclassification,  92 
Advancement,     opportunities 
under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, 165 
under  Three  Position  Plan 

of  Promotion,  195 
Aldrich,  J.  G.,  paper  by,  38 
Arnar,  Jules,  115 
America,  advocate  of  conser- 
vation, 20 
advocate   of    co-operation, 

20 

lacking  in  conservation,  9 
American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science, 
97 

American  Academy  of  Polit- 
ical and  Social  Science, 
3,  187,  202. 

American     Society     of     Me- 
chanical  Engineers,   131 
appeal    for    Crippled    Sol- 
dier, date  from,  145 
Apparatus,   cheapening  cost, 

85 
Applied  Science,  by-products, 

10 

Assembly,  Motion  Study  ap- 
plied to,  43 
Motion  Model  studies,  45, 

82 

results  of  studies,  47 
teaching,  48 

Authority,  lines  of,  under 
Scientific  Management, 
22 

213 


lines  of,  under  Traditional 

Management,  21 
Automicromotion  study,  70 
Awkwardness,    recorded    by 

cyclegraphs,  90 
recorded        by         Motion 
Models,  90 

Babbage,  Charles,  60 
Beginner,    proper    teaching, 

112 

Behaviour,  lack  of  records,  98 
recorded  by  Motion  Model, 

104 

Big  Brother  Movement,  177 
Blind  Alley  job,  elimination, 

191 

transformation,  196 
use  for  the  Crippled  Sol- 
dier, 196 

Box,  many  sided,  86 
Braider,  assembly,  43,  45,  47, 

48,  82 

Bricklaying,  interest,  65 
motion  savings,  42 
recommended       classificar 

tion,  54 
"  Bricklaying    System,"    47, 

65,  79,  114 

Bureau  of  Pan-American 
Motion  Standards,  need, 
95 

Standardisation,    need,    56 
By-products     of     laboratory 
investigations,  16 

Camera,  as  a  recording  de- 
vice, 114 


214 


INDEX 


Chart,  individual  promotion, 

191 

master  promotion,  190 
Simultaneous    Motion    Cy- 
cle,—  See     Simultaneous 
Motion  Cycle  Chart 
Chronocyclegraph,       descrip- 
tion, 84 

facts  demonstrated,   117 
Chronocycle-Method,      defini- 
tion, 46 
description,  67 
Cinematograph,  double,  69 
"Concrete   System,"   64,   115 
Conservation,  America's 

shortcomings,  9 
Conservation,  efficient,  75 
relation    to    co-operation, 

18,  19 
Conserving,    difference    from 

hoarding,  6 
Cooke,    M.    C.,   definition   of 

standard,  37 

Co-operation,  insured  under 
Scientific  Management, 
159 

necessity,  40,  94,  143,  209 
relation    to     conservation, 

19 
relation  to  Motion   Study, 

51 

relation  to  Scientific  Man- 
agement, 18 
stages,  18 

Correlation,  necessity,  99 
Cost,     relation     to     Motion 

Study,  44 

Cotton  Cloth,  savings  in  fold- 
ing, 42 
Crippled       Soldier,        many 

types,  132 
Motion   Study  Applied  to, 

131,  136 

necessity  for  training,  131 
need    for    encouragement, 
135 


Crippled  Soldier  —  continued 

need  for  teaching,  137 

placement,  137 

problem,  133 

provision   for  fatigue,   142 

provision  for  rest,  142 

relation  to  blind  alley  job, 
197 

relation  to  Fatigue  Study, 
173 

three  classes,  133 

typewriters     adapted     to, 
143 

use   of    Simultaneous   Mo- 
tion Cycle  Chart,  93 

use    of    teaching    devices, 
142 

problem,  need  for  co-oper- 
ation, 143 

Cripples,  utilization,  74 
Cyclegraph,     apparatus,    de- 
scription, 83 

method,  description,  115 

records,  field,  141 

spots,  shape,  85 

stretched,   description  and 

use,  91 
Coulomb,  60 

Decisions,    as   basis   for    re- 
classification    of    activi- 
ties, 92 
recorded    by    cyclegraphs, 

90 
recorded  by  Motion  Models, 

90 

Devices,   selection,  36 
Diagrams,  importance,  114 
Difference,   undue  emphasis, 

100 

Disciplinarian,  28 
Dodge,  J  M.,  views  on  co-op- 
eration, 188 

Ear,  use  of  in  teaching,  90 


INDEX 


215 


Economy,     dangers     of    un- 
studied, 76 
need,  74,  103 

relation  to  waste  elimina- 
tion, 76 
Education,   effect  of  Motion 

Study,  205 
lack    of    standardisation, 

102 

need  for  correlation,  101 
need,  53 

relation  to  Scientific  Meth- 
od, 97 
Elementary  units,  definition, 

63 

Employer,  benefits  from  Mo- 
tion Study,  211 
Employment,      methods      of 

providing-  regular,  163 
regularity  under  Scientific 

Management,  163 
steady,  relation  to  Motion 

Study,   209 

Employment     Manager,     ad- 
vantages of  Three  Posi- 
tions Plan,  199 
Engineer,      advantages      as 

manager,  15 

collection  of  Crippled  Sol- 
dier data  by,  94 
place  in  measuring  activity 

and  fatigue,  77 
place     in     Social     better- 
ment, 144 
responsibility   to    Crippled 

Soldier,   134 

Experience,  transfer  through 
Motion  Model,  126 


Farming,  Intensive,  10 
Fatigue,  provision,  121 

records,  77 

relation  to  Motion  Study, 

182 
Fatigue  Museum,  172 


"  Fatigue  Study,"  53,  71,  77, 

130,  142,  171,  172,  208 
Fatigue    Study,    as    offering 
field     of     investigation, 
184 
description     and     outline, 

170 

provision  for  rest,  142 
relation  to  Motion  Study, 

208 
relation  to  shop  practice, 

17 

results,  14 

under    Scientific    Manage- 
ment, 168 

Finger-wisdom,  necessity,  51 
Fortune    Sheet,    description, 

191 
products  and  by-products, 

192 

Functionalization,  plan  of 
under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, 21 

Gang  Boss,  28 

Gibbons,  J.,  152 

Godfather  movement,  de- 
scription, 197 

Grace,  recorded  by  cycle- 
graphs,  90 

recorded  by   Motion  Mod- 
els, 90 

Greul,  W.  H.,  147 

Growth,  industrial  defini- 
tion, 5 

Habit,  importance,  204 
recorded    by    cyclegraphs, 

90 
recorded  by  Motion  Model, 

90 
recorded       by       stretched 

cyclegraph,  91 
relation  to  monotony,  178 
shown  in  cyclegraphs,  118 
use  in  efficient  motions,  91 


216 


INDEX 


Habit  —  continued 

utilisation,  180 
Half  time  work,  102 
Hanau,  Mr.,  150 
Happiness,  result  of  interest- 
ing activity,  211 
minutes,  need  for  increas- 
ing, 75 

Health,  insured  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  159 
Home  Reading  Box,  172,  184 
Human    Element,    conserva- 
tion, 73 

conserved  by  efficiency,  53 
lack   of   conservation,   14 
need  for  study,  42 
use  of  laboratory  method 

in  study,  15 
Humidity,  records,  80 

Improvements,  suggested  by 

micromotion  study,  92 
Indecision,       recorded       by 

cyclegraphs,  90 
recorded        by         Motion 

Models,  90 
Individual  Promotions  Chart, 

191 
Industrial  situation,  effect  of 

Motion  Study,  50 
training,  requirements,  52 
Inspection,    under    Scientific 

Management,  49 
Inspector,  31 

Instruction  Cards,  26,  183 
Instruments  of  Precision,  57 
availability,  72 
use,  61 

Interest,    methods   of   creat- 
ing, 180 
relation  to  monotony,  179, 

208 
relation  to  Motion  Study, 

180,  181 

relation  to  Three  Position 
Plan  of  Promotion,  199 


International          Engineers' 

Congress,  57 
Invention,      stimulated      by 

Standards,  95 

Journal    of    Political    Econ- 
omy, 21 

Kent,  R.  T.,  156 

Laboratory       investigations, 

by-products,  16 
method,        and        Motion 

Study,  16 
method,    use   in   study   of 

human  element,  15 
plant,  use,  16 
Learner,  teaching,  112 
Learning,  curves,  use,  142 
process,   composition,   110 
process,  definition,  121 
Likenesses,    importance,    100 
increased    by    transporta- 
tion, 7 

Machines,  lack  of  standard- 
isation, 11 

Maintenance,  relation  to  con- 
servation, 6 
prerequisites,  159 
Management,  military,  21 
Marey,  62,  115 
Master  Promotion  Chart,  de- 
scription, 190 
Value,  191 

Measurement,  advantages,  37 
elements,  44,  58,  98 
necessity,  76 

Method,  ideal,  derivation,  46 
of  attack,   taught  by   Mo- 
tion Study,  183 
standard,  derivation,  111 
Methods,      improvement     of 

standardisation,  11 
Microchronometer,  change  in 
dial,  80 


INDEX 


217 


Microchronometer  —  contin- 
ued 

description,   80 
history,  114 

Mid-emotion     Records,     by- 
products, 81 
field,   141 
use,  81 

M2croniotion    Study,    advan- 
tages, 37 
auto,  70 
definition,  36 

description,  45,  66,  80,  114 
Military  management,  21 
Monotony,  definition,  174 
inadequate  remedies,   175 
relation  to  habit,  178 
relation   to    interest,    179, 

208 

Motion  economy,  scope,  144 
Motion  Model,  advantages,  89 
a  device  of  measurement, 

97 
as    comparer   of    methods 

and  results,  129 
as  record  of  behaviour,  104 
as   record   of   results,    128 
chronocyclegraph,  90 
derivation,  98 
description,  104 
description  of  making,  122 
education  of  maker,  125 
effect  on  worker,  206 
facts  demonstrated,  110 
field    of    application,    99, 

128 

make    motion    paths    tan- 
gible, 116 

method  of  making,  89 
relation  to  cyclegraph,  122 
spots,  123 
use,  69,  123 
use  by  expert,  127 
use     in     connection     with 
Simultaneous         Motion 
Cycle  Chart,  93 


Motion  Study,  applied  to  as- 
sembly, 43 

as    an    Industrial    oppor- 
tunity, 41 

broadening  effect,  207 
data,  usableness,  72 
date  of  beginning,  105 
definition,  43,  59,  202 
educative  effect,  205 
effect  on  cost,  48 
effect  on  fatigue,  48 
effect  on  observer,  205 
effect  on  output,  48 
effect  on  placement,  48 
effect  on  society,  52 
effect  on  wages,  48 
effect  on  worker,  202,  210 
history,  105 
methods,   203 
multi-exposure  film,  71 
need   for   trained   investi- 
gators, 184 
part  of  worker,  203 
perfection  of  devices,  71 
relation  to  co-operation,  51 
relation  to  Fatigue  Study, 

60,  182,  208 
relation  to  habit,  181 
relation   to    interest,    180, 

202 
relation      to       laboratory 

methods,  16 

relation  to  other  functions 
of      Scientific     Manage- 
ment, 34 
relation  to  standardisation 

of  trades,  55 

relation  to  steady  employ- 
ment, 209 
Motion    Study,    relation    to 

Time  Study,  60 
relation  to  working  prac- 
tice, 17 

results,  14,  48,  50 
variables,  78,  137 
"Motion  Study,"  65,  78,  111 


218 


INDEX 


Motions,  as  basis  for  reclassi- 

fication  of  activities,  92 
benefits     of     thinking     in 

terms,  144 
characteristics  of  efficient, 

91 
common  in  different  lines 

of  work,  92 
demonstration,  110 
elements  of  a  cycle,  138 
fast,  differ  from  slow,  109, 

119 
improvements  of  elements, 

109,   130 

right,  derivation,  109 
right,  importance,  109 
slow,  differ  from  fast,  109, 

119 

standard  speed,  109 
thinking  in  ^elements,  49 
transference,  140 
Muscle  tension,  place  in  mo- 
tions,  110 
Muybridge,  115 

National  Bureau  of  Stand- 
ards, need,  55 

New  England  Butt  Co.,  154 
assembly  of  braider,  43 

Observation,  types  of  errors, 
44 

Pan-American  Congress,  ad- 
vantages, 95 

Pay  increased  by,  Scientific 
Management,  161 

Peace,  relation  to  realisation 
of  common  problems,  96 

Pendulum,  bell  and  lamp, 
records,  90 

Penetrating  screen,  descrip- 
tion, 86 

Placement,  affected  by  cycle- 
graphs,  93 


Placement  —  continued 
affected  by  Motion  Models, 

93 

improvement  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  164 
made  efficient  through  Mo- 
tion Model,  48 
of  Crippled  Soldier,  137 
Polakov,  W.  N.,  153 
Posture  League,  co-operation 

with,   172 

Profits,  division  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  162 
Progress,  definition,  6 
relation  to  conservation,  6 
Promotion,  importance,  187 
Psychology,   interest  of  mo- 
tion studied  worker,  204 
"  Psychology      of      Manage- 
ment,"   69,    72,   81,   118, 
201,  208 

Quality,  provision  for,  112 
relation,  to  right  motions, 

110 
result    of    right    motions, 

120 
standardisation,  120 

Reclassification     of     trades, 
necessity,  53,  54 

Repair  boss,  31 

Research  laboratory,  use,  16, 
140 

Resources,  necessity  of  con- 
servation, 8 

Resseler,  H.  E.,  151 

Rest,  adequate  provision  for, 

121,  142 
relation  to  Fatigue  Study, 

15 
importance,  59 

Route  man,  25 

"  Safety  First,"  172 
Savings,    from    micromotion 
films,  81 


INDEX 


219 


Savings  —  continued 
through     Motion     Models, 

130 

Schaller,  A.  L.  155 
Screen,  penetrating,  descrip- 
tion,  86 
Scientific  Management,  aims, 

4 

benefits  to  workers,  161 
definition,  3,  58,  158 
division    of    profits,    162 
duties  of  worker,  159 
elimination    of    monotony, 

185 

functionalization,  21 
importance  of  practice,  158 
improvement  of  placement, 

164 

methods,  5 

must  be  practical,  158 
necessary  conditions,  159 
position  of  worker,  33 
practice,  158 
regularity  of  employment, 

163 

relation   to   America's   in- 
dustrial position,  3 
relation  to  co-operation,  18 
relation    to    measurement, 

185 

relation  to  Motion  Study,  34 
relation  to  other  conserv- 
ing activities,  13 
relation     to     standardisa- 
tion, 12 

results   to   individual   con- 
server,  17 
savings,  16 
scope,  4 
tasks,  14 
teaching,  167 
working  conditions,  160 
Second    Pan-American    Con- 
gress, 73 

Shoe  polish,  savings  in  cov- 
ering, 43 


Short  cuts,  differences,  111 

Simultaneous  Motion  Cycle 
Chart,  description,  93, 
137 

elements,  138 
method  of  gathering  data, 

140 
visualisation,  139 

Smith,  Adam,  60 

Smoothness,  sign  of  an  effi- 
cient motion,  91 

Speed  standard,  necessity  of 

teaching,  120 
boss,  30 

Standard,  definition,  37 

Standardisation,    of    trades, 

55 
reasons  for  lack,  12 

Standards,  derived  from  Mo- 
tion Model  Films,  81 
improved        by        Motion 

Models,  91 

maintenance  through  Mo- 
tion Model  or  cyle- 
graph,  92 

Stimulus,  mental,  provision 
for,  182 

Stopwatch,  defects,  62 

Suggestion  box,  as  creating 
interest,  183 

Summer  School  of  Scientific 
Management,  143 

Surgery,  lack  of  standardisa- 
tion, 12 

Synthesis,  importance,  40 


Taylor,  F.  W.,  definition  of 

Time  Study,  59 
Teachers,     under     Scientific 

Management,  23,  50 
Teaching,     by     micromotion 

records,  81 

definition  of  efficient,  121 
need  for  correct,  82 
of  beginner,  112 


220 


INDEX 


Teaching  —  continued 
of  Crippled  Soldier,  137 
science,  98 

under    Scientific    Manage- 
ment, 167 

Telephoto  lens,  use,  88 
Temperature,  records,  80 
Tending  jobs,  utilisation,  165 
Thompson,    S.    E.,   definition 

of  Time  Study,  59 
Three  Position  Plan  of  Pro- 
motion, 187 
actual  promotions,  198 
advantages,   188 
advantages  to  Employment 

Manager,  199 
asfccreating  interest,  183 
description,  166,  189 
relation  to  other  parts  of 
Scientific     Management, 
201 

results  of  use,  199 
Time,  cyclegraph  records,  81 
Time  and  cost,  27 
Time  Study,  defects  of  stop 

watch,  62 
results,  14 

lack  of  standardisation,  11 

"Time    Study."    Factor    in 

the  Science  of  obtaining 

Methods        of        Least 

Waste,"  72 

Trades,    classification    based 

on  differences,  100 
necessity   for  re-classifica- 
tion, 53 
Traditional  management,  21 


Transference  of  skill  relation 
to  micromotion  records, 
82 

Transportation,  results,  7 
Typewriters,      adapted      to 
Crippled  Soldiers,  143 

Unit,  determining,  35 
elementary,  definition,  63 
selection,  44 

Van  Winkle,  E.,  146 
Visualisation,  cyclegraphs  an 
aid  to,  83 

Wages,  increase  through  Mo- 
tion Study,  48 
increase    under    Scientific 

Management,  162 
Wallace,  L.  M.,  145 
War,  outcomes,  8 
Waste    elimination,     impor- 
tance, 41 
from    inefficient    motions, 

41 
through    use    of     Motion 

Models,  130 

Worker,  duties  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  159 
need   for   holding  the  co- 
operating, 188 
selection,  195 
under    Scientific    Manage- 
ment, 33 

Yeager,  Dr.,  147 
Zur  Nedden,  T.,  151 


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